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IN  MEMORIAM 
BERNARD  MOSES 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/firstlessonsinciOOformrich 


First  Lessons  in  Civics 


A    TEXT-BOOK  FOR    USE 
IN  SCHOOLS 


BY 

S.    E.   FORMAN,   Ph.D. 


<:ri^^ 


NEW  YORK-:. CINCINNATI.:- CHICAGO 

AMERICAN    BOOK    COMPANY 


Copyright,  1898,  by 
S.   E.   FORMAN. 


W.  P.  I 

BEHNARO  W08ES 


PREFACE 

If  instruction  in  citizenship  is  to  be  given  to  any  con- 
siderable number  of  thie  children  of  the  country,  it  must 
be  given  in  the  grammar  school  grades,  for  not  one  child 
in  twenty  passes  beyond  them  to  higher  schools.  This 
book  has  therefore  been  prepared  for  use  either  in  the 
upper  grammar  grades  or  in  the  first  years  of  the  high 
schools. 

An  attempt  has  been  made  to  state  briefly  and  simply 
the  leading  facts  of  the  several  governments  under  which 
we  live.  But  stating  facts  about  government,  and  having 
children  learn  them,  will  not  make  good  citizens.  In  the 
teaching  of  civics  the  best  must  always  come  from  the 
teacher.  His  citizenship,  his  life,  will  teach  more  than 
can  be  learned  from  a  book.  If  he  teaches  in  the  right 
spirit,  he  will  make  a  lesson  in  civics  a  lesson  in  ethics. 
Unless  it  is  pursued  with  a  distinctly  ethical  aim,  the 
study  of  Civil  Government  in  public  schools  is  of  doubtful 
utility.  To  equip  a  lad  with  a  knowledge  of  the  working 
of  governments  and  the  rights  of  citizens,  without  equip- 
ping him  with  a  conscience  that  will  constrain  him  to 
practice  the  virtues  of  citizenship,  may  be  to  prepare  him 

3 

885987 


4  PREFACE 

for  a  more  successful  career  as  a  public  rogue.  This  fact 
has  not  been  lost  sight  of  in  the  preparation  of  these  les- 
sons. Appeal  is  constantly  made  to  the  moral  sense  of 
the  child. 

In  teaching  civics,  as  in  teaching  anything  else,  the  key 
to  the  situation  is  interest.  This  may  be  awakened  and 
sustained  by  training  the  pupils  in  the  practical  work  that 
Qonfronts  the  citizen  when  he  enters  upon  public  life. 
The  study  of  city  and  village  charters,  the  drafting  of 
resolutions,  the  framing  of  constitutions  for  societies,  the 
discussion  of  current  questions,  are  resources  of  which 
the  skillful  teacher  will  constantly  avail  himself.  Above 
all,  he  will  avail  himself  of  the  debate.  The  class  may  be 
resolved  into  a  little  commonwealth,  where  questions  of 
public  interest  are  discussed  fully  and  fairly.  By  a  wise 
direction  of  the  discussion,  the  teacher  may  lead  his  pupils 
to  become  conscious  of  and  to  put  into  practice  some  of 
the  cardinal  virtues  of  citizenship.  By  means  of  debate 
they  may  learn  to  tolerate  and  respect  the  opinions  of 
others,  to  recognize  the  worth  of  others,  to  express  them- 
selves with  candor  but  not  with  violence  and  abuse,  to 
abandon  notions  based  upon  ignorance  and  prejudice,  to 
submit  gracefully  to  defeat.  The  questions  discussed 
should  be,  as  far  as  possible,  such  as  directly  affect  their 
school  life.  For  example,  it  may  be  a  question  whether 
the  class  as  a  body  shall  visit  a  court  in  session  or  a  legis- 
lature in  session.  It  can  go  to  one,  but  not  to  both.  The 
teacher,  without  throwing  his  influence  this  way  or  that, 


PREFACE  5 

may  allow  the  question  to  be  discussed  until  the  claims  for 
both  places  are  fully  brought  out.  He  may  then  put  the 
matter  to  a  vote.  They  will  probably  vote  for  the  place 
where  the  prospect  yields  most  fun.  But  the  lesson  will 
be  none  the  less  impressive  for  that.  The  main  thing  is 
to  arouse  a  genuine  division  of  sentiment  and  abide  faith- 
fully by  the  result.  Those  who  are  outvoted  will  have  a 
far  keener  perception  of  the  meaning  of  majority  rule  than 
they  could  ever  have  gained  from  the  words  of  a  book. 

The  discussions  of  the  class  may  be  so  conducted  as  to 
result  in  the  formulation  by  the  pupils  themselves  of  a 
set  of  rules  for  the  citizen's  guidance,  a  kind  of  citizen's 
decalogue.  When  their  hearts  as  well  as  their  minds  have 
been  reached,  they  may  be  taught  to  say  : 

I  must  not  cheat  the  State. 

I  must  not  cheat  the  railroads. 

I  must  give  a  due  share  of  my  time  and  energy  to  pub- 
lic affairs. 

I  must  vote  whenever  it  is  my  privilege  to  vote. 

I  must  not  debauch  my  fellows  by  bribing  them. 

I  must  not  accept  a  bribe  of  any  kind. 

I  must  make  a  decent  living  if  it  is  in  my  power. 

I  must  prefer  my  country  to  my  party. 

I  must  tolerate  the  opinions  of  others. 

It  is  sometimes  charged  against  our  schools  that  neither 
morality  nor  religion  is  taught  in  them.  The  teaching  of 
religion  seems  to  be  out  of  the  question,  and  the  formal 
teaching  of  morals  does  not  meet  with  much  favor.    There 


6  PREFACE 

is  but  little  teaching  in  our  schools  that  relates  to  the  con- 
duct of  life,  which  is,  after  all,  by  far  the  greater  part  of 
life.  Is  this  wise  ?  Is  it  right  ?  Should  the  moral  nature 
of  man  be  so  completely  ignored  in  a  scheme  of  educa- 
tion ?  Surely  the  development  of  the  ethical  nature  of 
children  should  receive  formal  recognition  in  a  system  of 
education.  It  is  the  teacher's  duty  to  aid  in  this  devel- 
opment whenever  it  is  practicable.  In  the  teaching  of 
civics  it  is  practicable  to  set  pupils  morally  right  upon  a 
large  class  of  questions,  and  the  opportunity  to  do  so 
should  not  be  lost. 

S.  E.  FORMAN. 
Baltimore,  January,  1898. 


CONTENTS 

LESSON   I 

PAGE 

Government  and  Laws 13 

Meaning  of  the  Word  "  Government "  —  The  Study  of  Government 
—  The  Necessity  of  Government  —  Laws. 

LESSON    II 

The  Government  of  Self 17 

Self-control  —  Self-control  may  be  Cultivated  —  Reward  of  Doing 
Good — The  Government  of  Self  the  Foundation  of  All  Govern- 
ment. 

LESSON    III 
The  Family 21 

The  Family  in  Ancient  Times  —  The  Family  of  To-day  —  The 
Duties  of  Parents  to  Children  —  Rights  of  Parents  in  Respect  to 
their  Children. 

LESSON    IV 

The  Family  {continued) 25 

Husband  and  Wife;  Marriage  —  Servants  —  Importance  of  Family 
Government. 

LESSON   V 

The  Government  of  the  School 29 

Pupils  should  know  Something  of  School  Government  —  The 
School  District  —  School  Officers  —  Powers  and  Duties  of  School 
Officers  —  The  Teacher. 

LESSON   VI 
The  Government  of  the  School  {continued)         ....      33 
Rules  that  Pupils  must  Obey  —  Duties  of  Teachers  and  Pupils, 

7 


8  CONTENTS 

LESSON   VII 

PAGE 

Citizenship  —  Who  are  Citizens 38 

Introduction — Meaning  of  the  Word  "Citizen"  —  Aliens  —  Nat- 
uralization. 

LESSON   VIII 
Citizenship  —  Civil  Rights       .         .         .         .        .        .        .        .41 

Civil  and  Political  Rights  —  The  Right  to  Personal  Security  —  Per- 
sonal Liberty;   Habeas  Corpus  —  The  Right  of  Private  Property. 

LESSON    IX 

Citizenship  —  Who  are  Voters 45 

The  Right  of  Suffrage  —  Persons  who  may  not  Vote  —  Registration. 

LESSON  X 

Citizenship  —  Elections 50 

At  the  Polls  —  Counting  the  Vote;  Majority;  Plurality  —  The 
Right  of  Holding  Office. 

LESSON   XI 

Citizenship  —  Duties  of  Citizens 56 

A  Few  Words  about  Duty  —  Obedience  to  the  Law  —  Defense  of 
One's  Country  —  Earning  a  Living  —  Attention  to  Public  Affairs 
—  Duty  of  Studying  Political  Questions. 

LESSON   XII 
Taxation 61 

Government  supported  by  Taxes  —  How  Each  Taxpayer's  Share  is 
Determined  —  The  Collection  of  Taxes  —  Exemption  —  **  Tax 
Dodgers." 

LESSON   XIII 

Taxation  {continued) ,66 

Duties  and  Excises  —  The  Income  Tax  —  Licenses;  Fees — Poll 
Tax  —  Franchises  —  Eminent  Domain, 


CONTENTS  9 

LESSON   XIV 

PAGB 

Several  Terms  Explained 70 

Self-government  —  Representative  Government  —  The  Three  De- 
partments of  Government. 

LESSON  XV 

Town  Government 75 

Early  Town  Government  in  New  England  —  The  Town  Meeting  — 
Town  Officers. 

LESSON   XVI 

The  County       .        .        .        .' 82 

The  Virginia  County  —  County  Officers. 

LESSON  XVII 
The  Township 89 

The  Nature  of  Township  Government  —  Officers  of  the  Township. 

LESSON   XVIII 

Village  and  City  Government 93 

Importance  of  the  Subject  —  The  Beginning  of  a  City  —  Charters. 

LESSON  XIX 

City  Government 98 

The  City  Council  —The  Mayor  —  City  Courts  —  What  a  City  Gov- 
ernment should  Do. 

LESSON   XX 

The  State         , 103 

The  Thirteen  Colonies  — The  Thirteen  Original  States  — The  Ad- 
mitted States. 

LESSON   XXI 

The  State  Constitution 108 

Meaning  of  the  Word  "  Constitution  "  —  Description  of  a  State 
Constitution  —  How  the  Constitution  of  a  State  is  Made  —  How 
a  Constitution  is  Changed  —  "  Constitutional "  and  "  Unconstitu- 
tional" 


lO  CONTENTS 

LESSON  XXII 

PAGE 

The  State  Legislature 114 

When  and  where  the  State  Legislature  Meets  —  The  Two  Branches 
of  the  Legislature  —  Election  of  Members  of  the  Legislature  — 
Organization. 

LESSON   XXIII 

The  State  Legislature  {continued) 119 

How  a  Law  is  Made  —  What  the  Legislature  of  a  State  may  Do  — 
Honest  Men  for  the  Legislature. 

LESSON   XXIV 

The  Governor  and  his  Assistants 126 

The  Governor  —  Other  Executive  Officers  —  Impeachment. 

LESSON    XXV 

Judges,  Juries,  and  Courts  of  Law 132 

The  Judicial  Department — The  Justice  of  the  Peace — The  Circuit 
Court  —  The  Supreme  Court  —  Civil  and  Criminal  Cases. 

LESSON   XXVI 

The  National  Government 138 

Importance  of  State  Government — The  Articles  of  Confederation 
—  The  Constitutional  Convention  of  1787. 

LESSON   XXVII 

The  National  Legislature      . 144 

The  Preaml)le  to  the  Constitution  —  Congress  —  The  House  of 
Representatives  —  The  Senate  —  How  a  Law  is  passed  in  Con- 
gress. 

LESSON   XXVIII 

What  Congress  may  Do 149 

The  Power  of  Congress  Limited  —  The  Powers  of  Congress. 


CONTENTS  1 1 

LESSON   XXIX 

PAGE 

What  Congress  may  Do  {continued) 153 

Congress  has  Power  :   (Jo  establish  Post  offices^  etc.) 

LESSON  XXX 

What  the  Constitution  Forbids 158 

What  Congress  may  not  Do  —  What  a  State  may  not  Do  —  The 
Fifteen  Amendments. 

LESSON   XXXI 

How  THE  President  is  Elected 162 

The  Nomination  of  a  President  —  Election  of  President  —  Inau- 
guration. 

LESSON   XXXII 

The  President  and  his  Cabinet 168 

The  Powers  and   Duties  of  the    President  —  The  Cabinet  —  The 
Civil  Service. 

LESSON   XXXIII 

The  National  Courts 173 

The  Kind  of  Cases  tried  in  the  National  Courts  —  The  Four  Grades 
of  National  Courts. 

LESSON   XXXIV 

Political  Parties 179 

What  Political  Parties  are  for  —  The  Choice  of  a  Party  —  Loyalty 
to  Party. 

INDEX 185 


LESSONS  IN  CIVICS 

OOi^O* 

LESSON   I 

GOVERNMENT  AND  LAWS 

"  Order  is  Heaven's  first  law." 

Meaning  of  the  Word  ''Government."  —  In  the  Latin  lan- 
guage the  word  gubernator  means  a  pilots  a  steersman,  one 
who  guides.  A  governor,  therefore,  is  one  who  guides 
something,  and  the  word  government  means  guidance  or 
management.  Thus  when  we  speak  of  the  government 
of  a  home,  we  refer  to  the  management  of  the  private 
affairs  of  the  home ;  when  we  speak  of  the  government 
of  a  State,  we  refer  to  the  management  of  the  pubhc 
affairs  in  the  State.  The  word  government  will  be  used 
a  great  many  times  in  this  book,  and  we  shall  learn  that 
there  are  many  kinds  of  government.  We  shall  speak 
of  **  self-government,"  of  "  school  government,"  of  "fam- 
ily government,"  of  ''state  government,"  of  "national 
government."  Wherever  the  word  governmeiit  occurs,  it 
will  mean  guidance,  management,  control. 

The  Study  of  Government.  —  You  are  now  going  to 
study  the  subject  of  government;  that  is,  you  are  going 
to  study  how  the  affairs  of  mankind  are  managed ;  how 

13 


14  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

men  and  women  are  guided  in  their  journey  through  the 
world  amidst  other  men  and  women ;  how  society  is  held 
together  and  controlled.  The  study  is  of  great  impor- 
tance, and  should  be  of  great  interest,  for  the  happiness 
of  men  depends  largely  upon  the  kind  of  government  that 
guides  and  controls  their  lives.  The  study  of  government 
should  interest  children  as  well  as  men ;  for  children,  as 
well  as  men,  are  deeply  affected  by  the  government  under 
which  they  live.  In  his  earliest  years  the  child  is  under 
the  government  of  his  parents.  As  soon  as  he  is  old 
enough  he  is  sent  to  school,  where  a  new  government 
enters  into  his  life  and  controls  his  actions.  He  now 
lives  under  the  government  of  the  school,  as  well  as 
under  the  government  of  the  home.  He  must  obey  his 
teacher,  as  well  as  his  father  and  mother.  When  he  goes 
out  into  the  streets,  and  parks,  and  fields,  he  finds  that 
there  is  another  government  to  restrain  him  and  regulate 
his  conduct.  If  he  is  very  noisy,  or  if  he  runs  upon 
flower  beds  in  the  park,  or  if  he  takes  fruit  from  the 
orchard  of  a  stranger,  he  is  promptly  checked  by  a 
policeman  or  other  officer,  and  is,  perhaps,  punished  for 
his  offense.  The  boy  has  now  learned  that  there  is  a 
third  government  which  he  must  obey,  —  the  government 
of  the  city,  or  of  the  State.  And  thus  it  is  all  through 
life ;  no  matter  where  we  go,  or  which  way  we  turn, 
government  always  and  everywhere  follows  us  and  regu- 
lates our  actions.  If  the  governments  that  control  us  are 
wise,  and  just,  and  kind,  we  are  made  happier  by  them ; 
if  they  are  harsh,  or  foolish,  or  tyrannical,  our  lives  are 
made  miserable  by  them.     By  studying  and  understand- 


LESSON   I  15 

ing  the  different  forms  of  government  under  which  we 
live,  we  may  prepare  ourselves  to  make  them  better. 

The  Necessity  of  Government.  —  Whenever  two  or  more 
people  live  together,  there  must  be  rules  to  regulate  their 
actions.  Without  such  rules  they  would  quarrel  and  fight, 
brutal  passions  would  be  their  guide,  and  they  would  soon 
become  savages.  Hence,  no  matter  how  small  or  how 
rude  the  society,  a  government  of  some  kind  is  necessary. 
Try  to  think  what  would  happen  around  you  if  no  one  was 
under  any  sort  of  control,  if  every  one  could  follow  his  own 
will  and  his  own  appetites  and  desires. 

Laws.  —  The  rules  that  governments  make  to  guide  our 
actions  are  called  laws.  A  law  states  what  we  are  to  do 
and  forbids  what  we  are  not  to  do.  When  a  law  has  been 
made  it  must  be  obeyed.  No  man  can  disobey  a  law  with- 
out being  liable  to  punishment  for  his  disobedience.  We 
may  not  like  a  law,  we  may  think  a  law  unjust  or  unwise, 
yet  so  long  as  it  is  a  law  we  must  obey  it.  Moreover, 
when  a  person  violates  a  law,  he  is  punished,  although  he 
did  not  know  there  was  such  a  law  when  he  violated  it. 
Ignorance  of  what  the  law  is  will  excuse  no  one.  Laws 
are  made  for  the  government  of  us  all,  and  if  we  do  not 
know  what  they  are  it  is  either  our  fault  or  our  misfortune. 

How  laws  are  made  and  changed,  and  how  people  are 
forced  to  obey  them,  and  punished  for  disobeying  them, 
will  be  explained  hereafter.  At  present  it  is  enough  to 
know  that  any  government  worthy  of  the  name  is  always 
strong  enough  to  enforce  the  laws  that  are  made.  It  is 
the  duty  of  all  who  live  under  a  government  to  obey  the 
laws  of  that  government  without  being  compelled  to  do  so. 


1 6  LESSONS  IN  CIVICS 

If  we  think  a  certain  law  is  bad,  it  is  our  right  and  our 
duty  to  try  to  have  it  changed.  Are  you  compelled  to 
obey  any  laws  that  you  think  are  unjust? 

QUESTIONS  FOR   ORIGINAL  THOUGHT 

1.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  governess?  governmental f 
ungovernable  ?  gubernatorial 

2.  Explain  the  use  of  the  "governor"  on  a  steam  engine. 

3.  Name  the  people  whom  you  know  to  be  officers  of  government. 

4.  What  would  happen  if  people  on  the  street  were  allowed  to  do 
just  as  they  pleased? 

5.  What  is  a  hermit? 

6.  The  heavenly  bodies  move  according  to  certain  laws.  What  do 
you  think  would  happen  if  these  laws  should  cease  to  operate,  and  sun, 
moon,  and  stars  should  move  according  to  no  fixed  law? 

7.  Watch  the  movements  of  ants.  Do  you  not  see  signs  of  govern- 
ment among  them  ? 

8.  Watch  a  large  flock  of  birds  flying  through  the  air.  Do  you  not 
see  signs  of  government  among  the  birds  ? 

9.  Can  you  see  law  and  order  in  the  world  of  nature  around  you? 
Observe  an  ear  of  corn ;  a  rose  ;  a  leaf. 

10.   Name  some  of  the  uses  of  government  and  law. 


• 


LESSON   II 

THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  SELF 

"  He  that  ruleth  his  spirit  is  better  than  he  that  taketh  a  city."  —  Bible. 

Self-Control.  —  Before  you  begin  to  study  the  different 
forms  of  government  under  which  we  live,  I  wish  to  call 
your  attention  to  something  that  is  at  the  foundation  of  all 
government.  I  wish  you  to  think  for  a  few  moments  upon 
the  subject  of  the  government  of  one's  self,  or  self-cont7vl. 
You  doubtless  feel  in  yourself  the  power  to  control  your 
own  actions  in  many  ways.  You  can  be  studious,  or  you 
can  be  idle ;  you  can  be  respectful,  or  you  can  be  impu- 
dent ;  you  can  be  kind,  or  you  can  be  cruel.  I  think  you 
will  not  deny  that  there  is  within  yourself  a  government 
which  controls  your  private  actions;  a  will  that  directs 
the  actions  of  your  mind  and  body.  We  should  all  con- 
stantly ask  ourselves  whether  our  wills  carry  us  in  the 
right  direction.  True  self-control  consists  in  deciding  to 
do  what  is  right  and  doing  it.  Anger,  appetite,  laziness, 
envy,  jealousy,  pride,  revenge,  tempt  us  to  do  wrong. 
Love,  duty,  conscience,  whisper  to  us  to  do  right.  For 
which  shall  we  decide  —  for  the  wrong  or  for  the  right } 
If  we  decide  for  the  wrong,  we  may  in  the  end  become  the 
slaves  of  our  passions  and  be  destroyed.  For  which,  then, 
shall  we  decide } 

LESS.  IN  CIV. —  2  17 


1 8  LESSONS  IN  CIVICS 

Self-Control  may  be  cultivated.  —  I  believe  you  all  think 
that  you  ought  to  control  yourselves  and  do  right,  but 
some  of  you  may  feel  unequal  to  the  task  of  always  doing 
right.  Now  self-control  lies  in  the  will.  If  your  will  is 
strong,  you  will  be  able  to  govern  yourself  under  the  most 
trying  circumstances;  if  it  is  weak,  you  will  not.  But 
remember  this :  A  weak  will  may  be  strengthened  by 
exercise,  just  as  an  arm  may  be  strengthened  by  exer- 
cise. If  a  boy  who  has  learned  to  smoke  feels  that  smok- 
ing is  injuring  him,  he  should  leave  off  the  habit  at  once. 
When  a  cigar  is  offered  to  him  he  should  refuse  to  take  it. 
This  may  be  hard  to  do  at  first.  Let  him  refuse  a  second 
time  and  he  will  find  it  easier ;  a  third  time  he  will  find  it 
still  easier.  By  continuing  to  refuse  he  will  at  last  find 
that  his  desire  to  smoke  has  gone.  His  will  conquers  his 
appetite  and  he  is  master  of  himself.  If  a  girl  who  in- 
dulges in  the  ugly  habit  of  saying  spiteful  and  untruthful 
things  about  her  acquaintances  becomes  ashamed  of  her- 
self and  desires  to  do  better,  she  should  begin  by  exercis- 
ing and  strengthening  her  will.  When  she  hears  some  one 
saying  unjust  things  about  another,  instead  of  helping 
along  with  the  abuse,  she  should  keep  silent,  even  if  she 
must  bite  her  tongue  to  do  so.  By  refusing  for  a  time  to 
speak  falsely  or  unjustly  about  people,  she  will  find  that  it 
is  not  necessary  to  bite  her  tongue  to  prevent  herself  from 
joining  in  when  she  hears  slanderous  remarks.  She  will 
probably  be  inclined  to  use  her  tongue  either  to  rebuke 
the  slanderer  'or  to  say  something  good  about  the  person 
slandered.  Young  people  will  find  that  a  strong  will  bent 
on  doing  right  will  carry  them  safely  past  temptation. 


LESSON   II  19 

The  Reward  of  Doing  Right.  —  Thoughtless  young  peo- 
ple sometimes  ask :  "  What  is  the  use  of  doing  right  ? 
What  is  the  use  of  checking  bad  impulses  and  exercising 
self-control  ? "  If  you  will  look  around  you,  and  reflect 
upon  what  you  see,  you  will  find  an  answer  to  this  ques- 
tion. You  will  find  that  the  people  who  exercise  control 
over  themselves  are  happier  than  those  who  are  carried 
along  by  passion  and  appetite.  Sometimes,  it  is  true, 
wicked  and  violent  men  seem  to  prosper  and  even  to  be 
happy.  But  they  are  not  really  happy.  If  you  could 
learn  the  secret  of  their  lives,  you  will  find  that  bad,  dis- 
honest men  lack  one  thing  that  is  more  precious  than  any- 
thing else  in  life.  They  may  have  wealth,  and  honor,  and 
high  social  rank,  but  they  have  not  their  own  self-respect, 
and  no  one  can  be  truly  happy  without  this.  With  self- 
respect  one  can  never  be  thoroughly  unhappy.  You  may 
be  unfortunate  or  unsuccessful ;  people  may  scorn  you  or 
neglect  you,  yet  if  you  always  firmly  do  the  right  thing, 
you  will  always  have  a  good  conscience  and  your  own 
self-respect. 

The  Government  of  Self  the  Foundation  of  all  Govern- 
ment. —  There  is  another  reward  for  those  who  exercise  a 
strict  control  over  themselves.  Their  government  of  self 
makes  them  good  citizens  and  fits  them  to  take  part  in  the 
government  of  others.  A  community  is  composed  of  indi- 
viduals, and  the  character  of  its  government  will  be  like 
the  character  of  the  individuals  who  compose  it.  If  it 
contains  a  large  number  of  rogues,  swindlers,  idlers, 
drunkards,  then  its  government  will  certainly  be  bad,  for 
the  government  of  a  people  is  never  much  better  than  the 


20  LESSONS   IN  CIVICS 

people  themselves.  If  a  community  consists  of  honest, 
industrious,  moral  citizens,  then  it  will  have  a  good  gov- 
ernment. Good  government  begins  with  the  individual,  it 
begins  with  yoti  personally.  If  you  intend  to  take  a  part 
in  public  affairs  when  you  grow  up,  and  if  you  intend  to 
help  in  making  your  government  better,  you  should  begin 
by  trying  to  make  a  good  man  of  yourself. 


LESSON   III 

THE  FAMILY 

"  There  is  in  the  family  an  angel  possessed  of  a  mysterious  influ- 
ence of  grace,  sweetness,  and  love ;  an  angel  who  renders  our  duties 
more  cheerful  and  our  sorrows  less  bitter.  This  angel  is  woman. 
Whether  as  mother,  wife,  or  sister,  woman  is  the  joy  of  existence.  She 
is  a  treasure  of  gentle  consolation  sufficient  to  soothe  every  sorrow.  It 
is  through  woman  that  the  family  points  to  Eternity.  Hold  then  the 
fauiily  sacred,  my  brothers.  Reject  every  attempt  to  undermine  it,  for 
it  is  of  God."  —  Mazzini. 

The  Family  in  Ancient  Times.  —  The  oldest  form  of 
government  with  which  we  are  acquainted  is  that  which 
exists  within  the  family.  In  very  early  times  men  did  not 
live  in  large  bodies  and  associate  closely  with  each  other 
as  they  do  in  our  day.  The  father,  as  the  head  of  the 
family,  was  the  only  one  that  made  laws,  and  he  was, 
therefore,  the  only  one  that  must  be  obeyed. 

The  power  of  the  father  in  those  old  times  was  very 
great.  He  had  complete  control  over  the  lives  and  for- 
tunes of  all  the  members  of  his  family.  He  could  sentence 
a  son  or  a  daughter  to  death ;  he  could  sell  his  children 
into  slavery.  A  son,  whatever  might  be  his  age,  could 
not  marry  without  the  consent  of  his  father,  and  could  not 
acquire  land  or  other  kind  of  property  and  hold  it  in  his 
own  name.  Even  the  children  of  a  son  were  in  the  power, 
not  of  their  father,  but  of  their  grandfather. 


22  LESSONS  IN  CIVICS 

The  Family  of  To-day.  —  In  our  times  the  power  of 
the  father  over  his  children  is  not  so  great.  Many  of  the 
things  that  the  father  once  could  do  can  now  be  done  only 
by  the  government  of  the  State.  Yet  even  now  there  is 
no  government  that  affects  the  lives  of  young  people 
more  than  that  which  comes  to  them  from  their  parents. 
Parents  regulate  the  conduct  of  children,  support  them, 
protect  them,  educate  them.  It  is  in  the  home,  while 
members  of  the  family,  that  children  must  look  for  their 
greatest  happiness.  The  law  that  should  govern,  and 
that  usually  does  govern,  in  the  family  is  the  law  of  love 
and  duty.  In  the  home  there  should  be  no  force.  Par- 
ents, as  a  rule,  devote  their  lives  to  the  happiness  of  their 
children.     What  should  children  do  in  return  ? 

It  has  been  found  that  parents  are  not  always  kind  and 
loving  and  just  towards  their  children,  and  that  children 
are  not  always  grateful  and  obedient  to  their  parents.  It 
sometimes  happens  that  the  parent  or  the  child  fails  to  do 
his  duty.  When  this  does  happen,  the  government  of  the 
State  steps  in  and  commands  what  must  be  done.  Let  us 
learn  something  of  the  rights  and  duties  which  the  law 
will  not  allow  parents  or  children  to  disregard. 

The  Duties  of  Parents  to  Children. 

(i)  Support,  —  The  first  duty  the  parent  owes  to  the 
child  is  to  support  it,  to  provide  it  with  food,  clothing, 
and  shelter.  If  a  father  should  be  so  hard-hearted  as  to 
turn  his  child  out  of  doors  and  refuse  to  give  it  food,  a 
stranger  could  take  the  child  into  his  house  and  feed  it 
and  charge  the  father  with  the  expense,  and  the  law  would 


LESSON   III  23 

compel  the  father  to  pay  the  bill.  This  duty  of  parents 
to  support  their  children  continues  until  the  children  are 
twenty-one  years  of  age.  After  that  time  children  may 
not  look  to  their  parents  for  support.  It  is  not  often  that 
the  law  interferes  with  the  parents  in  these  matters ;  love 
alone  is  nearly  always  strong  enough  to  hold  them  to  their 
duty. 

(2)  Education.  —  A  second  duty  which  parents  owe  to 
their  children  is  to  educate  them.  In  many  of  the  coun- 
tries of  Europe,  and  in  several  of  the  States  of  our  own 
country,  parents  are  compelled  by  law  to  send  their  chil- 
dren to  school.  In  every  State  schools  are  provided  for 
children  free  of  cost,  and  parents  are  expected  to  send 
their  children  to  them  :  "A  parent  who  sends  his  son  into 
the  world  uneducated  does  a  great  injury  to  mankind  as 
well  as  to  his  own  family,  for  he  deprives  the  community 
of  a  useful  citizen  and  he  bequeaths  to  it  a  nuisance." 
Do  you  think  the  State  should  compel  parents  to  send 
their  children  to  school } 

Rights  of  Parents  in  Respect  to  their  Children.  —  Parents 
have  not  duties  only ;  they  have  rights  also. 

(i)  Obedience.  —  They  have  the  right  to  the  obedience 
of  their  children.  The  child  must  obey  its  parents  in  all 
reasonable  commands.  If  it  refuses  to  obey,  it  may  be 
punished  in  such  manner  as  the  parents  think  fit.  The 
punishment,  however,  must  be  reasonable  ;  it  must  be  such 
as  not  to  endanger  the  health  of  the  child  or  injure  it  in 
mind  or  body. 

(2)    Service.  —  Parents  have  the  right  to  the  service  of 


24  LESSONS    IN   CIVICS 

their  children.  Until  children  are  of  age  they  must  work 
for  their  parents  if  their  parents  need  their  service.  If 
they  earn  wages,  their  parents  have  a  right  to  take  their 
earnings. 

(3)  Assistance  in  Old  Age,  —  If  the  parents  are  old  and 
poor  and  unable  to  take  care  of  themselves,  their  children 
may  be  compelled  to  assist  them.  Just  as  parents  are 
compelled  to  support  the  child  when  it  is  young  and  help- 
less, so  the  child  is  compelled  to  support  its  parents  when 
they  are  old  and  helpless. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  THOUGHT 

1.  What  is  the  average  number  of  persons  in  a  family?  (Find  the 
number  of  persons  in  ten  families  of  your  acquaintance  and  divide  this 
number  by  ten.) 

2.  Are  parents  responsible  for  the  actions  of  their  children? 

3.  Who  is  the  most  unselfish  member  of  the  home? 

4.  Is  it  a  kindness  for  parents  to  live  beyond  their  means  for  the 
sake  of  their  children? 

5.  Name  some  bad  habits  that  children  are  guilty  of  in  their  homes. 

6.  What  sacrifices  do  parents  make  in  order  that  their  children  may 
be  kept  at  school  ? 

7.  How  may  parents  be  repaid  for  these  sacrifices  ? 

8.  How  should  disobedient  children  be  punished? 


LESSON    IV 

THE    FAMILY  (Continued) 

Husband  and  Wife  ;  Marriage.  —  At  the  head  of  the 
family  government  stand  the  father  and  mother  who  are 
united  as  husband  and  wife  by  marriage.  Marriage  is 
regarded  by  the  law  as  a  contract,  but  it  is  a  very  strong 
contract,  and  it  ought  to  be  a  very  sacred  one.  It  is  a  con- 
tract that  cannot  be,  and  ought  not  to  be,  easily  broken. 
The  marriage  relation  continues  as  long  as  both  husband 
and  wife  live.  The  only  way  the  marriage  tie  can  be  law- 
fully broken  during  life  is  by  diiwrce.  When  either  the 
husband  or  the  wife  acts  in  such  a  way  as  to  destroy  the 
happiness  of  the  home,  a  court  of  law  will  grant  (to  the 
wife  when  the  husband  is  guilty,  or  to  the  husband  when 
the  wife  is  guilty)  a  divorce,  that  is,  the  right  to  live  apart. 
Thus  a  divorce  breaks  up  the  home  and  usually  results  in 
unhappiness  to  all  members  of  the  family.  The  laws  of 
the  different  States  differ  very  widely  in  the  matter  of 
granting  divorces.  In  some  States  a  very  trifling  offense 
on  the  part  of  the  husband  or  the  wife  is  a  lawful  cause 
for  divorce.  In  other  States  it  is  very  difficult  to  get  a 
divorce,  even  for  the  most  serious  offense.  Some  have 
thought  that  the  law  in  reference  to  divorce  should  be  the 
same  in  all  the  States.  When  you  grow  older  you  may  be 
called  upon  to  express  an  opinion  upon  this  question. 

25 


26  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

In  olden  times  the  wife  was  regarded  as  the  property  of 
the  husband,  and  everything  that  she  owned  before  mar- 
riage became  his  after  marriage.  But  in  our  day  woman 
holds  a  higher  place  in  the  family.  She  is  regarded  as  the 
equal  of  the  husband,  not  as  his  slave.  In  most  States  she 
may  hold  in  her  own  name  the  property  she  had  before 
marriage,  and  if  she  acquires  property  after  marriage  she 
may  claim  it  as  her  own.  The  law  is  gradually  coming  to 
regard  woman  with  more  favor  and  to  bestow  upon  her 
more  rights  than  she  had  in  the  past.  The  husband  is 
bound  to  support  his  wife.  If  he  refuses  her  the  neces- 
saries of  life  she  may  buy  what  she  needs  from  any  one 
who  will  trust  her  and  the  husband  will  be  compelled  to  pay 
for  what  she  gets.  If  the  wife  leaves  her  husband  without 
cause  and  of  her  own  free  will,  he  will  not  be  compelled  to 
support  her.  Upon  the  death  of  the  husband  the  wife  has 
the  right  of  dozver ;  that  is,  she  has  a  right  for  her  lifetime 
to  one  third  of  the  property  in  land  held  by  her  husband  at 
his  death. 

Servants.  —  Servants  employed  to  assist  in  the  work  of 
the  household  are  not  usually  regarded  as  members  of  the 
family,  yet  in  discussing  family  government  we  must  not 
pass  them  by  without  a  word.  There  was  a  time  when  the 
position  of  the  servant  in  the  family  was  quite  different 
from  what  it  is  now.  A  hundred  years  ago  the  relation 
between  servant  and  master  was  close.  The  master  then 
would  protect  his  servant  from  harm,  would  care  for  him 
when  he  was  sick,  would  support  him  in  his  old  age.  The 
servant  in  return  was  loyal  to  his  master  and  rendered  to 
him  a  faithful  and  willing  service.      And  it  was  the  same 


LESSON   IV  27 

with  the  maidservants  of  the  household.  Mistresses  in 
the  olden  times  did  not  look  upon  their  maids  as  hirelings 
unworthy  of  sympathy  or  help.  We  may  learn  from  a 
Greek  author  how  a  lady  was  expected  to  treat  her  ser- 
vants in  ancient  times.  A  husband  and  his  young  wife  are 
talking  over  household  matters  just  after  their  marriage: 

Husband,  '*  But  there  is  one  of  the  duties  belonging 
to  you  which,  perhaps,  will  be  more  painful  to  you  than 
any  other,  namely,  the  care  of  your  servants  when  they 
are  ill." 

Wife.  "  Nay,  that  will  be  most  pleasing  to  me  of  all 
my  duties  if  only  m.y  servants  will  be  grateful  when  I  min- 
ister rightly  to  them  and  will  love  me  better." 

Hitsband.  "You  will  have  other  duties  that  you  will 
like  better.  When  one  of  your  handmaidens  does  not 
know  how  to  spin  you  will  teach  her,  and  make  her  twice 
the  girl  she  was ;  or  when  one  is  ignorant  of  housekeeping 
you  will  teach  her  how  to  manage  a  house  and  make  her 
faithful  and  mistresslike,  and  every  way  worthy." 

From  this  dialogue  we  learn  that  in  Greece  more  than 
two  thousand  years  ago  the  mistress  of  the  house  took  a 
deep  personal  interest  in  the  welfare  and  happiness  of  her 
servants,  and  that  she  was  bound  to  them  by  ties  of  love 
and  duty.  In  order  that  she  might  be  better  served  she 
tried  to  make  her  servants  noble  and  good. 

We  must  confess  that  in  our  own  day  there  is  no  such 
happy  relation  existing  between  mistress  and  maid.  The 
mistress  usually  thinks  her  duty  is  ended  when  she  has 
paid  her  servant  the  wages,  and  the  servant  is  careful  to 


28  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

render  as  little  true  service  as  possible.  The  result  is  dis- 
content and  quarreling  and  frequent  changes.  Would  it 
not  be  better  for  the  mistress,  would  she  not  be  better 
served,  if  she  treated  her  servants  with  kindness  and 
friendliness  ?  Would  it  not  be  better  for  servants  to  try 
to  win  their  employers'  good  will  and  affection  by  thor- 
ough service  and  loyal  deeds  ? 

Importance  of  the  Family  Government.  —  The  govern- 
ment of  the  family  is  the  smallest  of  the  governments  that 
we  shall  have  to  study,  but  it  is  not  the  least  important. 
The  larger  governments,  such  as  the  city  or  the  State,  are 
simply  a  number  of  families  bound  together,  and  if  all  the 
families  of  a  town  or  of  a  State  were  well  governed,  there 
is  no  doubt  that  the  town  or  the  State  itself  would  be  well 
governed.  How  important  then  is  it  that  we  should  do  all 
in  our  power  to  make  our  homes  what  they  should  be. 
Children  can  serve  their  country  simply  by  doing  their 
duty  in  their  Jiomes.  They  can  repay  the  love  and  sacri- 
fice of  their  parents  by  loving  and  unselfish  deeds.  Broth- 
ers and  sisters  may  bless  their  homes  by  living  at  peace 
with  each  other.  We  should  never  forget  that  t/ie  law  of 
the  home  is  the  law  of  love,  service y  and  sacrifice. 


LESSON   V 

THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

**  The  school  should  be  pervaded  by  a  spirit  of  honesty  and  truth- 
fulness. It  should  inspire  its  pupils  with  a  manly  resistance  to  all 
temptations  to  deceive  or  be  false."  —  E.  E,  White. 

Pupils  should  know  Something  of  School  Government.  — 

For  several  years  you  have  attended  school,  and  while  in 
school  you  have  found  that  you  are  under  a  government ; 
that  you  cannot  do  as  you  please ;  that  teachers  and  school 
officers  regulate  your  conduct  in  many  ways.  This  gov- 
ernment of  the  school,  in  the  lives  of  young  people,  is 
next  in  importance  to  the  government  of  the  family.  The 
present  happiness,  as  well  as  the  future  welfare  of  pupils, 
depends  in  a  large  degree  upon  how  the  school  which  they 
attend  is  governed.  Pupils,  therefore,  should  understand 
something  of  the  nature  of  school  government.  If  you 
will  study  this  subject  carefully,  you  will  understand  your 
teachers  better,  and  your  school  life  may  thereby  be  made 
pleasanter.  Very  frequently  trouble  arises  in  a  school- 
room merely  because  teachers  and  pupils  do  not  under- 
stand each  other. 

The  School  District.  —  You  are  sent  to  school  in  order 
that  you  may  acquire  useful  knowledge,  and  that  your 
mind  may  be  trained  to  think  rightly  upon  questions 
that  may  arise  in  your  life.     The  State  provides  for  you 

29 


30  LESSONS   IN  CIVICS 

schools  which  you  may  attend  free  of  cost.  It  does  this 
in  order  that  you  may  grow  up  to  be  intelligent  citizens. 
Ignorant  citizens  are  a  source  of  danger  to  a  state.  In 
order  that  all  children  may  attend  school,  schoolhouses 
are  built  at  convenient  distances  from  each  other  in  all 
parts  of  the  country.  It  is  rare  that  a  child  lives  more 
than  three  miles  from  a  school.  When  a  school  is  to 
be  established,  a  portion  of  territory  with  definite  boun- 
daries is  laid  off  as  a  School  District.  Near  the  center 
of  this  district  is  built  the  schoolhouse.  In  a  thinly  popu- 
lated community  the  school  may  have  but  one  teacher  and 
but  twenty  or  thirty  pupils.  In  a  thickly  populated  dis- 
trict, as  in  a  city,  a  single  school  may  have  twenty  or  more 
teachers  and  a  thousand  or  more  pupils.  Whether  small 
or  large,  the  School  District  is  the  unit  of  school  govern- 
ment. 

School  Officers.  —  At  the  head  of  the  government  of  the 
School  District  is  a  body  of  officials  whose  duty  it  is  to 
appoint  the  teacher  and  supervise  the  affairs  of  the  school. 
This  governing  body  is  known  by  different  names  in  dif- 
ferent States.  In  some  States  it  is  called  the  School 
Committee,  and  is  elected  each  year  by  the  voters  of  the 
School  District.  In  other  States  it  is  called  the  Board  of 
School  Trustees,  and  is  not  elected  but  is  appointed  by 
some  authority  above  it.  Sometimes  the  governing  body 
is  called  the  Board  of  School  Directors :  sometimes  it  is 
called  the  Board  of  Education.  In  a  few  States  it  is 
called  the  Board  of  School  Visitors.  In  all  the  States 
every  public  school  has  a  set  of  officers,  —  whatever  they 
may  be  called,  —  who  exercise  a  very  close  and  a  very 


LESSON   V  31 

complete  direction  of  its  affairs.  In  other  words,  every 
school  has  its  governors  and  its  government. 

Powers  and  Duties  of  School  Officers.  — The  school  offi- 
cers of  the  District  have  at  their  disposal  for  school  pur- 
poses a  certain  amount  of  money  raised  by  taxation. 
With  this  rhoney  they  pay  the  salary  of  the  teachers, 
build  and  repair  schoolhouses,  furnish  the  schools  with 
fuel,  furniture,  maps,  books,  and  other  supplies.  They 
make  rules  for  the  government  of  teachers,  and  usually 
declare  what  studies  shall  be  taught.  They  may  make 
rules  for  the  government  of  pupils  if  they  choose  to  do 
so,  although  generally  they  allow  the  teachers  to  make 
such  rules.  In  all  important  matters  relating  to  the  school 
the  teachers  must  consult  the  school  officers  of  the  Dis- 
trict. For  example,  a  teacher  may  send  an  unruly  pupil 
home  for  a  short  time,  but  he  cannot  expel  the  pupil ; 
that  is,  he  cannot  take  away  from  the  pupil  entirely  the 
right  of  coming  to  the  school.  A  pupil  can  be  expelled 
only  with  the  consent  of  the  school  officers.  These  offi- 
cers determine  the  hours  of  opening  and  closing  schools ; 
they  fix  the  lengths  of  recesses ;  they  decide  when  a  holi- 
day may  be  given ;  they  care  for  the  health  of  the  pupils. 
Thus  we  see  they  play  a  most  important  part  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  school. 

The  Teacher.  —  Next  to  the  school  officials  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  school  comes  the  teacher.  So  far  as  the 
pupils  are  concerned,  the  teacher  is  the  real  head  of  the 
school.  The  duty  of  the  teacher  is  twofold,  —  he  must 
teach,  and  he  must  govern.  As  there  can  be  no  good 
teaching  where  there  is  not  good  government,  the  teacher 


32  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

must  make  every  effort  to  secm'e  obedience  and  good 
habits  in  his  pupils.  In  order  to  do  this,  he  usually  makes 
a  set  of  rules  for  the  guidance  of  the  school.  If  these 
rules  are  just  and  reasonable,  the  pupils  must  obey  them. 
If  a  pupil  refuses  to  obey  a  proper  rule,  he  may  be  pun- 
ished for  his  disobedience ;  if  he  persists  in  disobeying,  he 
may  be  expelled  from  the  school.  What  are  some  of  the 
rules  that  a  teacher  may  make  and  that  pupils  must  obey  ? 
In  the  next  lesson  I  will  mention  a  few  of  those  rules  that 
judges  in  courts  of  law  have  found  reasonable  and  have 
upheld  teachers  in  enforcing.  The  rules  that  will  be  men- 
tioned are  such  as  no  pupil  can  safely  disobey. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  THOUGHT 

1.  Do  you  know  the  boundaries  of  your  School  District.'*     Draw  a 
map  of  the  district,  locating  the  schoolhouse. 

2.  May  a  pupil  living  in  one  School  District  attend  school  in  an- 
other ? 

3.  Name  the  members  of  your  School  Committee. 

4.  In  some  States  women  may  serve  as  school  officers.     Do  women 
serve  as  school  officers  in  your  State? 

5.  Draw  up  a  formal  petition  asking  your  School  Committee  to  pur- 
chase something  that  your  school  needs. 

6.  Is  a  pupil  on  his  way  to  or  from  school  under  the  government  of 
the  school  or  under  the  government  of  his  parents  ? 

7.  In  what  subjects  are  teachers  required  to  pass  an  examination 
before  they  are  permitted  to  teach  ? 

8.  Imagine  you  are  a  school  officer  and  write  a  letter  appointing 
a  teacher;  a  letter  accepting  a  teacher's  resignation. 

9.  Draw  up  resolutions  expressing  sorrow  for  the  death  of  a  school- 
mate or  teacher,  and  sympathy  for  the  relatives. 


LESSON   VI 

THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL   (Continued) 

•^  The  seven  cardinal  virtues  of  the  school  are :  regularity,  punctu- 
ality, neatness,  accuracy,  silence,  industry,  and  obedience." 

—  E,  E.  White. 

Rules  that  Pupils  must  Obey : 

Rule  I.  Pupils  must  not  be  Tardy.  —  ''Tardiness  is 
a  direct  injury  to  the  whole  school.  The  confusion  of 
hurrying  to  seats,  gathering  together  of  books,  etc.,  by 
tardy  ones,  at  a  time  when  all  should  be  at  study,  cannot 
fail  to  impede  the  progress  of  those  who  are  regular  and 
prompt  in  attendance.  The  rule  requiring  prompt  and 
regular  attendance  is  demanded  for  the  good  of  the  whole 
school.  It  is  therefore  a  rule  for  the  government  of  the 
school,  and  must  be  regarded  as  proper  and  reasonable." 

Rule  II.    Pupils  must  conduct  themselves  properly  while 

at  School.  —  "Henry  H was  expelled  from  school  by 

the  Committee  of  Rockport,  M ,  for  acts  of  misconduct, 

which  consisted  of  whispering,  laughing,  acts  of  playful- 
ness and  rudeness  to  other  pupils,  inattention  to  study, 
and  conduct  tending  to  cause  confusion  and  distract  the 
attention  of  other  scholars  from  their  studies  and  reci- 
tations." Henry  thought  the  expulsion  was  unjust,  and 
brought  suit  against  the  Committee.     The  judge  who  tried 

LESS.  IN  CIV.  —  3  33 


34  LESSONS   IN  CIVICS 

his  case  thought  that  the  boy  was  justly  expelled,  and 
decided  in  favor  of  the  Committee. 

Rule  III.  Pupils  sJioidd  be  Regular  in  Attendance. — 
Pupils  may  not  be  allowed  to  remain  absent  from  school 
without  a  satisfactory  excuse.  They  may  be  required  to 
bring  written  excuses  for  absence.  On  this  rule  a  judge, 
delivering  an  opinion  in  court,  said :  "  Continued  or  re- 
peated absences  of  one  of  a  class  is  not  only  injurious  to 
the  absentee  but,  if  allowed  beyond  a  certain  point,  is 
calculated  to  demoralize  those  who  attend  and  derange  the 
orderly  instruction  of  the  teacher."  Notice  that  the  judge 
was  not  so  much  interested  in  the  boy  who  was  absent  as 
he  was  in  the  pupils  who  were  regular  in  their  attendance. 
It  is  the  welfare  of  a  whole  school,  and  not  the  welfare  of 
a  single  person,  that  must  be  considered  when  making  a 
rule  for  the  government  of  pupils.  In  what  ways  does 
absence  interfere  with  the  general  work  of  the  school } 

Rule  IV.  Pttpils  must  not  Play  Truant.  —  When  a 
child  that  has  been  sent  to  school  by  its  parents  does  not 
come  to  school,  it  commits  truancy,  and  this  is  an  offense 
against  good  school  government.  In  some  States  and  in 
many  cities  truant  officers  are  employed  to  follow  up 
truants  and  bring  them  to  school.  Truancy  is  a  grave 
fault,  and  pupils  who  commit  it  are  liable  to  get  them- 
selves into  serious  trouble.  A  judge  in  a  court  of  law  is 
usually  severe  with  truants.  What  does  the  truant  lose 
by  remaining  away  from  school  '^.  What  does  the  school 
lose } 

Rule  V.  Piipils  must pursite  the  Prescribed  Course  of 
Studies.  —  Every  school  has,  or  ought  to  have,  a  regular 


LESSON   VI  35 

course  of  study  which  all  pupils  are  to  follow.  If  pupils 
were  allowed  to  select  their  own  studies,  there  would  be 
the  greatest  confusion.  No  two  would  select  exactly  the 
same  studies.  Neither  can  pupils  be  allowed  to  choose 
the  class  in  which  they  are  to  recite.  Both  their  studies 
and  their  rank  in  school  must  be  left  to  the  decision  of  the 
teacher.  Would  you  rather  be  in  a  class  where  the  work 
was  too  easy  for  you,  or  in  a  class  where  the  work  was 
difficult  ? 

Duties  of  Teachers  and  Pupils.  —  The  few  rules  that 
have  been  given  above  are  such  as  have  been  found  neces- 
sary in  all  schools.  In  all  schools  children  must  be  punc- 
tual, they  must  be  regular  in  their  attendance,  they  must 
be  obedient,  they  must  not  play  truant,  they  must  pursue 
the  studies  that  are  selected  for  them.  Many  other  rules 
might  be  mentioned,  but  more  are  not  necessary.  After 
all,  a  school  is  not  made  good  by  rules.  A  good  school  is 
one  in  which  both  teachers  and  pupils  try  day  by  day  to 
do  their  d?^tf.  What  is  meant  by  duty  ?  What  is  it  to  do 
one's  duty  .'*  You  do  your  duty  when  you  do  what  your 
conscience  tells  you  is  right.  Try  to  find  out  what  is 
right,  and  when  you  have  decided  what  is  right,  act  for 
the  right,  and  you  have  done  your  duty.  It  is  sometimes 
hard  to  tell  what  is  right  and  what  is  wrong,  but  some 
things  are  pretty  clear.  It  is  perfectly  clear  that  it  is  the 
duty  of  the  teacher  to  do  the  following  things : 

(i)  To  prepare  himself  thoroughly  in  the  subjects  that 
he  teaches. 

(2)   To  work  hard  for  the  advancement  of  all  his  pupils. 


36  LESSONS   IN  CIVICS 

(3)  To  treat  his  pupils  with  respect  and  kindness,  and 
to  extend  to  them,  whenever  he  can,  help  and  sympathy. 

(4)  To  set  an  example  of  right  living.  A  bad  man 
cannot  be  a  good  teacher. 

(5)  To  be  punctual.  A  teacher  cannot  expect  his  pupils 
to  be  prompt  if  he  allows  himself  to  be  tardy. 

(6)  To  be  careful  of  his  own  health  and  of  the  health 
of  his  pupils. 

(7)  To  train  his  pupils  in  such  habits  as  will  make  good 
men  and  women  of  them. 

These  are  a  few  of  the  duties  of  a  teacher.  Your 
teacher  has  doubtless  thought  much  upon  the  subject  of 
his  duty,  and  has  perhaps  read  books  upon  the  subject. 
It  would  not  be  strange  if  you  have  thought  very  little  of 
your  duty;  yet  as  pupils  you  have  your  duties,  and  you 
ought  to  learn  what  they  are  and  try  to  fulfill  them.  A 
few  of  the  most  important  duties  of  pupils  are : 

(i)  To  obey  cheerfully  the  five  rules  that  have  been 
stated. 

(2)  To  avoid  wasting  their  own  time  or  the  time  of 
their  fellow-pupils  by  whispering,  passing  notes,  or  mak- 
ing unnecessary  noises  in  the  schoolroom. 

(3)  To  be  kind  and  respectful  to  their  teachers  and 
schoolmates. 

(4)  To  be  truthful  in  all  things. 

(5)  To  be  loyal  to  the  school  and  to  support  the  teacher 
in  his  efforts  to  improve  it. 

(6)  To  be  neat  and  clean  in  dress  and  person. 

(7)  To  avoid  speaking  ill  of  their  classmates. 


LESSON  VI  37 

(8)  To  avoid  slandering  or  misrepresenting  the  teacher. 

(9)  To  avoid  bearing  tales. 

(10)  To  refrain  from  cutting,  marking,  injuring,  or  de- 
facing school  property. 

(11)  To  obey  all  signals  promptly. 

(12)  To  conduct  themselves  properly  on  the  way  to 
and  from  school. 

There  are,  of  course,  other  duties  besides  those  men- 
tioned above.  In  the  schoolroom,  as  elsewhere,  there 
are  constantly  arising  questions  of  duty  that  can  only  be 
settled  by  taking  into  consideration  particular  facts  and 
circumstances.  In  all  cases,  l\pwever,  the  rule  is  the 
same :  Do  right,  forget  self,  and  do  what  your  conscience 
tells  you  to  do.  By  following  the  path  of  duty  a  pupil 
will  help  to  make  his  school  what  it  ought  to  be  —  a  place 
where  the  minds  and  hearts  of  boys  and  girls  are  trained 
for  the  highest  manhood  and  womanhood. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  THOUGHT 

1 .  From  the  list  of  duties  of  pupils  given  in  the  lesson  a  most  im- 
portant duty  is  omitted.     What  is  the  duty  ? 

2.  Make  a  Hst  of  duties  that  parents  owe  to  the  school. 

3.  Make  a  list  of  duties  that  teachers  owe  to  parents. 

4.  Name  the  qualities  that  teachers  like  in  pupils. 

5.  Name  the  qualities  that  pupils  like  in  teachers. 

6.  When  things  go  wrong  at  home  with  teachers  and  pupils,  do 
they  ever  take  their  spite  out  in  the  schoolroom  ? 

7.  What  does  the  word  impartial  mean?     Can  a  teacher  be  per- 
fectly impartial? 

8.  In   your  conduct   towards  your  teachers  and  schoolmates,  do 
you  follow  the  "  golden  rule  "  ? 

9.  Discuss  "  cheating"  and  "  copying." 

10.   Name  some  of  the  benefits  of  education. 


LESSON   VII 
CITIZENSHIP 

WHO    ARE    CITIZENS 

"  The  ideal  citizen  is  the  man  who  believes  that  all  men  are  brothers, 
and  that  the  nation  is  merely  an  extension  of  his  family,  to  be  loved, 
respected,  and  cared  for  accordingly."  —  Habberton. 

« 

Introduction.  —  We  have  studied  the  government  of  the 
family  and  the  government  of  the  school  and  have  learned 
something  of  the  rights  and  duties  of  the  members  of  a 
household,  and  also  something  of  the  rights  and  duties  of 
pupils  and  teachers.  The  governments  that  we  shall  study- 
hereafter  are  those  that  we  meet  with  outside  of  the  family 
and  school.  They  are  governments  that  include  a  much 
larger  number  of  people  than  either  the  family  or  the 
school.  A  family  seldom  consists  of  more  than  a  dozen 
persons,  while  the  school  seldom  numbers  more  than  sev- 
eral hundred  pupils.  But  the  larger  governments  that 
you  will  be  interested  in  when  you  go  out  from  school  con- 
sists of  many  thousands,  and  some  of  them  of  millions,  of 
people.  They  are  governments,  therefore,  far  more  diffi- 
cult to  understand  than  that  of  the  family  or  the  school. 
But  as  they  are  governments  that  most  of  you  will  be 
called  upon  to  take  a  part  in  managing,  it  is  highly  impor- 
tant that  you  understand  their  workings.     Before  we  take 

38 


LESSON   VII  .  39 

up  the  study  of  these  larger  governments,  in  order  that  we 
may  be  able  to  understand  our  subject  better,  we  shall 
have  several  lessons  on  the  subject  of  citizenship,  and 
shall  try  to  learn  what  are  our  rights  and  duties  as 
citizens. 

Meaning  of  the  Word  **  Citizen."  —  Let  us  begin  by 
trying  to  learn  what  is  meant  by  the  word  citizen.  In 
the  strict  meaning  of  the  word  a  citizen  is  one  who  has 
the  rights  and  privileges  of  an  inhabitant  of  a  city;  but 
the  word  now  means  more  than  this.  A  citizen  is  one  who 
has  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  inhabitants  of  a  state 
or  nation.  As  a  member  of  the  family  you  have  certain 
rights  and  duties  under  the  family  government;  as  a 
member  of  a  school  you  have  certain  rights  and  duties 
under  the  government  of  the  school ;  and  so,  as  one  of  the 
inhabitants  of  a  nation,  you  have  certain  rights  and  duties 
under  the  government  of  that  nation.  A  citizen  of  a  coun- 
try is  one  born  in  that  country.  If  you  were  born  in  the 
United  States,  you  are  a  citizen  of  the  United  States.  The 
rank  of  citizen  does  not  belong  to  grown  men  alone,  for 
women  and  children  are  as  truly  citizens  as  men  are.  To 
be  a  citizen  is  simply  to  be  a  recognized  member  of  a  com- 
munity, and  the  test  of  such  membership  is  birth  within 
the  community. 

Aliens.  —  But  there  are  many  people  among  us  who 
were  not  born  in  the  United  States.  Thousands  come  to 
our  shores  every  week  from  foreign  countries.  These 
foreigners  are  citizens  of  another  country,  and  are  for 
that  reason  called  aliens,  the  word  alien  meaning  another. 
Aliens  have  not  so  many  rights  and  privileges  as  citizens 


40  *     LESSONS   IN  CIVICS 

have.  As  a  rule  they  are  not  allowed  to  vote,  and  in 
some  States  they  are  not  allowed  to  hold  land  in  their  own 
name.  As  they  are  citizens  of  another  country  it  is  not 
just  that  they  should  share  all  the  privileges  of  citizens 
of  this  country.  A  person  cannot  be  a  citizen  of  two  dif- 
ferent countries  at  the  same  time. 

Naturalization.  —  We  have  learned  that  aliens  living 
among  us  continue  to  be  citizens  of  the  country  in  which 
they  were  born.  Yet  if  they  so  desire  they  can  be  natural- 
ized, that  is,  they  can  be  made  citizens  by  a  process  of  law 
called  naturalization.  Before  he  can  be  naturalized,  an 
alien  must  have  lived  five  years  in  this  country.  When  an 
alien  wishes  to  be  naturalized  he  must  first  go  into  some 
court  of  law  and  declare  upon  oath  before  a  judge  that  he 
intends  to  become  a  citizen  of  the  United  States.  This  is 
called  "declaring  his  intention."  After  he  has  declared 
his  intention  of  becoming  a  citizen,  he  must  wait  two 
years,  at  the  end  of  which  time  he  again  goes  before 
the  judge  and  swears  that  he  renounces  his  citizenship 
in  the  country  in  which  he  was  born  and  that  he  will  sup- 
port the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  If  the  judge 
believes  that  he  has  resided  in  the  United  States  for  five 
years  and  that  there  is  no  fraud,  the  alien  will  then  have 
conferred  upon  him  the  distinction  of  being  an  Ameri- 
can citizen.  Would  it  be  right  to  require  that  aliens, 
before  they  are  naturalized,  should  read  the  Constitution 
that  they  swear  to  support } 


LESSON   VIII 
CITIZENSHIP  (Continued) 

CIVIL    RIGHTS 

"What  is  liberty  without  wisdom  and  without  virtue?  It  is  folly, 
vice,  and  madness."  —  Edmund  Btirke. 

Civil  and  Political  Rights.  —  We  shall  nov^  speak  of 
those  rights  of  which  American  citizens  are  so  proud. 
The  rights  of  the  citizen  may  be  divided  into  tv^o  classes : 
(i),  his  civil  rights,  and  (2),  his  political  rights.  Civil  rights' 
are  those  that  are  enjoyed  by  all  citizens  v^hether  men, 
women,  or  children.  For  example,  they  are  such  rights 
as  pupils  may  enjoy.  Political  rights  are  such  as  adult 
citizens  have  of  sharing  in  government.  Thus  the  right 
to  vote  and  hold  office  are  political  rights.  In  this  lesson 
we  shall  speak  of  civil  rights. 

The  Right  to  Personal  Security.  —  By  this  is  meant  the 
right  to  be  secure  from  injury  to  our  body,  our  health,  and 
our  reputation.  If  our  person  is  attacked,  if  violent  hands 
are  laid  upon  us,  we  can  call  upon  the  government  to 
defend  us.  Policemen,  sheriffs,  and  constables  are  em- 
ployed at  public  expense  to  secure  citizens  from  harm.  If 
a  citizen  is  attacked,  and  he  cannot  get  the  immediate  aid 
of  an  officer,  he  has  the  right  to  defend  himself.  If  a 
burglar  breaks  into  a  house  at  night,  the  occupant  of  the 

41 


42  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

house,  in  defense  of  himself  and  family,  may  lawfully  kill 
him.  If  a  citizen  is  threatened  harm  by  a  person,  he  may 
have  the  one  who  threatens  him  taken  before  a  magistrate 
and  bound  with  sureties  to  keep  the  peace.  If  the  health 
of  citizens  is  threatened  by  some  nuisance,  as  by  poisonous 
fumes  from  a  factory,  or  by  a  careless  accumulation  of 
filth,  the  citizen  may  call  upon  the  government  to  have  the 
nuisance  removed  or  abated.  In  these  and  in  many  other 
ways  the  government  cares  for  the  personal  safety  and 
happiness  of  the  citizen.  The  government  will  also  defend 
the  reputation  of  its  citizens.  If  a  person  slanders  you, 
that  is,  talks  about  you  in  such  a  way  as  to  injure  your 
good  name  and  lower  your  standing  in  the  community,  you 
may  call  upon  the  government  to  defend  you  and  punish 
him  who  slanders  you.  If  what  is  said  about  you  is  true, 
you  can,  of  course,  do  nothing.  A  person  whose  conduct 
is  what  it  ought  to  be  will  have  but  little  to  fear  from 
slander. 

Personal  Liberty ;  Habeas  Corpus.  —  Another  right  that 
all  citizens  enjoy  is  the  right  of  personal  liberty.  By  this 
is  meant  the  right  to  move  about  freely  from  place  to 
place  without  hindrance,  to  choose  a  place  of  residence, 
to  engage  in  whatever  occupation  one  may  see  fit,  to  wor- 
ship in  the  church  of  one's  choice,  and  to  speak  and  print 
one's  thoughts.  Of  course  while  you  are  under  the  charge 
of  your  parents  you  cannot  enjoy  this  right  so  fully  as  you 
will  when  you  shall  come  of  age.  The  right  of  personal 
liberty  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  rights  that  free  men 
possess.  In  olden  times  a  powerful  man  could  throw  an 
humble  man  into  a  dungeon  and  keep  him  there  as  long 


LESSON   VIII  43 

as  he  desired.  In  our  day  such  a  wrong  cannot  be  in- 
flicted upon  a  citizen.  No  citizen  can  be  imprisoned  by 
a  private  person,  nor  can  any  one  be  imprisoned  at  all 
without  just  cause.  If  a  person  is  thrown  into  prison, 
or  is  put  into  confinement  against  his  will,  he  has  the  right 
to  a  writ  of  habeas  corptis.  Every  one  should  know  some- 
thing of  this  famous  writ,  for  it  is  the  greatest  safeguard 
of  personal  liberty.  Let  us  see  what  the  writ  of  habeas 
corpus  is  and  what  it  does  for  the  citizen.  Suppose  you 
are  thrown  into  prison  unjustly,  or  that  you  are  confined 
in  some  place  against  your  will ;  how  shall  you  get  out } 
Somebody  who  is  interested  in  you,  perhaps  it  will  be  a 
lawyer,  will  go  at  once  to  a  judge  of  a  court  and  ask  that 
you  be  taken  out  of  prison  immediately  and  brought  before 
a  judge  in  order  that  your  case  may  be  heard.  The  judge 
is  bound  to  grant  this  request,  he  is  bound  to  have  you 
brought  before  him  at  once.  He,  therefore,  at  once  issues 
a  writ  of  habeas  corptts.  This  writ  is  an  order  to  the 
sheriff,  or  whoever  it  is  that  keeps  you  in  confinement,  to 
bring  you  as  soon  as  possible,  before  the  court.  When 
you  are  brought  before  the  judge,  and  it  is  found  that  you 
are  innocent  of  crime,  you  are  restored  to  your  freedom. 
If  the  judge  should  find  that  there  is  good  reason  for  your 
imprisonment,  he  will  send  you  back  to  jail  to  await  a 
regular  trial.  Thus  we  see  that  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus 
gives  quick  relief  to  a  person  who  has  been  unjustly  im- 
prisoned. In  times  of  war  or  great  public  danger,  this 
writ  may  be  snspendedy  and  when  it  is  suspended  a  citizen 
may  be  confined  in  prison  for  no  cause  whatever,  merely 
on  suspicion. 


44  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

The  Right  of  Private  Property.  —  A  citizen  has  the 
right  to  hold  property  in  his  own  name,  and  the  govern- 
ment must  protect  him  in  the  enjoyment  of  this  property. 
If  any  one  attempts  to  deprive  a  man  of  that  which  he 
lawfully  owns,  the  government  will  come  to  the  aid  of  the 
owner  and  will  punish  the  offender.  If  a  mob  burns  down 
a  house,  or  in  some  other  way  destroys  property,  the  gov- 
ernment will  make  good  the  loss  to  the  owner.  It  is  the 
duty  of  the  government  to  protect  property,  as  it  is  its 
duty  to  protect  life  and  liberty.  Besides  the  right  to  enjoy 
in  peace  the  property  he  owns,  the  citizen  has  the  right  to 
acquire  more  property  by  labor  or  by  trade  or  by  the 
exercise  of  his  talents.  This  right  of  acquiring  property 
is  sometimes  abused.  In  the  pursuit  of  wealth  a  man  has 
no  moral  right  to  disregard  the  just  rights  of  others.  Too 
often  men  think  only  of  themselves  and  do  not  hesitate  to 
take  for  themselves  what  in  strict  right  belongs  to  some 
one  else.  But  no  truly  good  citizen  will  do  this.  A  good 
citizen  will  follow  the  rule :  Render  unto  others  their  due. 
We  cannot  all  be  rich,  but  we  can  all  be  honest  and  just. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  THOUGHT 

1.  A  farmer  shot  and  seriously  injured  a  boy  who  was  in  his  tree 
stealing  chestnuts.     Could  the  farmer  have  been  punished  for  this  act? 

2.  Is  there  full  enjoyment  of  all  civil  rights  in  your  community? 

3.  In  what  way  may  the  newspapers  abuse  the  "freedom  of  the 
press  "  ? 

4.  What  is  meant  by  "religious  liberty''? 

5.  Discuss  the  expression,  "  Live  and  let  live." 


LESSON   IX 
CITIZENSHIP   (Continued) 

WHO    ARE    VOTERS 
"Voters  are  the  uncrowned  kings  who  rule  the  nation."  —  Morgan, 

The  Right  of  Suffrage.  —  Civil  rights,  we  have  learned, 
are  those  rights  enjoyed  by  all  citizens,  old  and  young, 
rich  and  poor,  educated  and  ignorant.  Political  rights  are 
enjoyed  only  by  those  citizens  who  are  old  enough  and 
wise  enough  to  exercise  them  properly.  The  greatest 
political  right  of  citizens  is  the  right  of  suffrage.  It  has 
been  said  that  the  word  sicffrage  originally  meant  a  piece 
of  a  broken  pot,  and  that  in  olden  times  a  man  was  voted 
for  by  casting  for  him  potsherds,  or  pieces  of  broken  pot- 
tery. Whatever  may  be  the  origin  of  the  word  suffrage^ 
the  right  of  suffrage  is  the  right  of  voting.  Voters  are 
sometimes  called  electors,  that  is  chrosers.  To  vote  is  to 
express  a  choice  for  this  or  that  man  for  an  office,  or  for 
the  enactment  of  this  or  that  law.  What  citizens  are 
voters  or  electors  .^  Answers  to  this  question  will  be  differ- 
ent in  the  different  States  of  the  Union.  In  every  State, 
however,  there  are  certain  qualifications,  certain  marks  of 
fitness,  required  of  a  citizen  before  he  can  exercise  the 
right  to  vote.     These  qualifications  are  : 

(i)  Age.  —  To  be  a  voter  one  must  at  least  be  twenty-one 
years  of  age.     It  is  thought  that  a  person  younger  than 

45 


46  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

this  does  not  know  enough  to  vote  intelligently,  and  such 
is  usually  the  fact.  It  is  also  true  that  many  who  are 
much  older  than  twenty-one  do  not  know  enough  to  vote 
intelligently. 

In  France  and  in  Germany  and  some  other  countries  of 
Europe  a  citizen  is  not  allowed  to  vote  until  he  is  twenty- 
five  years  of  age.  Do  you  think  that  would  be  a  good  law 
for  our  country  to  adopt  ? 

(2)  Sex.  —  In  most  of  the  States  a  voter  must  be  a  male 
citizen.  In  two  States,  Wyoming  and  Colorado,  women 
share  the  right  of  suffrage  equally  with  men.  In  these 
two  States  women  may  not  only  vote,  but  they  may  hold 
office  and  otherwise  take  part  in  public  affairs.  In  many 
of  the  States  women  have  the  right  to  vote  upon  school 
matters.  The  movement  to  give  women  the  right  of  suf- 
frage seems  to  be  gaining  strength. 

(3)  Residence,  —  A  citizen  may  not  vote  until  he  has  lived 
a  certain  time  in  the  State,  and  in  the  city  or  county  in 
which  he  desires  to  cast  his  vote.  A  stranger  coming  into 
a  place  should  not  be  allowed  to  take  a  part  in  its  govern- 
ment until  he  has  first  had  time  to  inform  himself  upon 
public  matters.  For  this  reason  every  State  requires  that 
a  citizen  shall  '' gain  a  residence  "  before  he  is  permitted 
to  vote.  In  some  States  he  must  wait  two  years  before 
he  can  vote,  in  others  one  year,  while  in  a  few  States  a 
residence  of  only  three  or  four  months  is  required  to  give 
him  the  right. 

(4)  Property ;  Poll  Tax.  —  In  times  past  a  citizen  was 
not  allowed  to  vote  unless  he  was  the  owner  of  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  property,  but  in  our  day  a  man  may  vote 


LESSON   IX  47 

even  though  he  owns  no  property  at  all.  In  a  few  States 
there  is  a  poll  tax  —  usually  a  small  tax  of  one  or  two 
dollars  —  that  every  male  citizen  of  age  must  pay,  no 
matter  how  poor  he  may  be.  If  this  poll  tax  is  not  paid, 
the  right  to  vote  is  withheld.  If  we  except  this  poll  tax, — 
and  even  it  is  fast  dying  out,  — the  right  to  vote  is  given  to 
all  without  any  expense.  Sometimes  we  hear  people  say 
that  no  one  should  be  allowed  to  vote  unless  he  owns  some 
property.     Do  you  agree  with  such  people  ? 

(5)  Education.  —  In  nearly  all  the  States  the  right  to 
vote  is  given  to  the  ignorant  as  well  as  to  the  educated.  A 
person  may  not  be  able  to  read  or  write  his  name,  and  yet 
may  vote.  Of  course  such  a  person  seldom  knows  what 
he  is  doing ;  he  cannot  make  an  intelligent  choice ;  he 
votes  either  blindly  or  as  some  one  tells  him.  Several 
States  demand  that  a  citizen  shall  be  able  to  read  and 
write  before  he  is  allowed  to  vote. 

Persons  who  may  not  Vote.  —  There  are  several  classes 
of  men  who  may  not  vote,  although  they  are  old  enough 
and  have  lived  in  the  State  as  long  as  is  required  by  law. 
Such  people  are : 

(i)  Aliens, — We  have  learned  what  is  meant  by  the 
word  alien.  When  an  alien  has  been  naturalized,  that 
is,  when  he  has  been  made  a  citizen,  he  then  has  the  right 
to  vote.  This  is  the  general  rule,  although  a  State  may,  if 
it  sees  fit,  allow  an  alien  to  vote,  and  it  may  refuse  to  allow 
a  man  who  has  been  naturalized  the  right  to  vote ;  for 
voting  is  one  of  the  rights  of  citizenship  that  are  regulated 
by  each  State,  according  to  its  own  wishes. 


48  LESSONS  IN  CIVICS 

(2)  Criminals.  —  A  criminal,  that  is,  a  person  who  has 
been  convicted  of  theft,  or  murder,  or  arson,  or  some  other 
crime,  is  not  allowed  to  vote.  If  a  man  has  been  im- 
prisoned for  crime,  and  has  been  lawfully  pardoned,  the 
right  of  suffrage  is  restored  to  him  with  his  freedom. 

(3)  Idiots.  —  Idiots,  lunatics,  and  imbeciles  are  not  al- 
lowed to  vote. 

(4)  Paupers.  —  As  a  rule  paupers  supported  in  an  alms- 
house at  the  expense  of  the  public  are  not  allowed  to  vote. 

Registration.  —  For  one  who  has  the  right  to  vote  and 
wishes  to  exercise  his  right,  the  first  step  to  be  taken  is  to 
get  his  name  registered.  In  every  election  district  there 
is  a  Board  of  Registrars,  consisting  of  two  or  more  per- 
sons, whose  duty  it  is  to  make  out  a  list  of  the  names  of 
all  citizens  in  the  district  who  have  a  right  to  vote.  One 
wishing  to  vote  must  appear  before  the  Registrars  several 
weeks  before  election  day  and  state  his  name,  age,  birth- 
place, where  he  lives,  and  what  his  occupation  is.  If  the 
Registrars  find  that  he  has  all  the  qualifications  of  a  voter, 
his  name  will  be  enrolled  upon  the  voting  list  —  he  will  be 
registered.^ 

QUESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  THOUGHT 

1.  Would  it  be  wise  for  the  State  in  which  you  live  to  pass  a  law 
(if  it  has  not  already  done  so)  requiring  that  citizens  shall  be  able  to 
read  and  write  before  they  shall  be  given  the  right  of  suffrage  ? 

2.  What  would  be  the  advantages  of  woman  suffrage?  What  would 
be  the  disadvantages  ?     Are  women  citizens  ? 

3.  For  what  reason  is  the  right  of  voting  withheld  from  paupers? 

1  Registration  is  not  required  in  the  States  of  Indiana,  Oregon,  New  Hamp- 
shire, Arkansas,  and  West  Virginia. 


LESSON   IX  49 

4.  Do  you  feel  that  you  could  now  vote  intelligently? 

5.  Are  Indians  and  Chinese,  living  in  the  United  States,  allowed 
to  vote? 

6.  In  what  large  city  of  the  United  States  do  the  inhabitants  have 
no  vote  ? 

7.  State  accurately  the  qualifications  for    voting    in  the   State   in 
which  you  live. 

8.  Discuss  the  words  elector,  resident^  inhabitant^  denizen,  citizen. 


LESS.  IN  CIV.  —  4 


LESSON   X 
CITIZENSHIP  (Continued) 

ELECTIONS 

"  The  proudest  now  is  but  my  peer, 
The  highest  not  more  high ; 
To-day  of  all  the  weary  year, 
A  king  of  men  am  I. 

"  To-day,  alike  are  great  and  small. 
The  nameless  and  the  known ; 
My  palace  is  the  people's  hall, 

The  ballot  box  my  throne!" —  Whittier. 

At  the  Polls.  —  On  election  day  every  good  citizen 
should  go  to  the  polls  and  vote.  The  polls  is  simply  a 
room  where  several  election  officers,  known  as  Judges  of 
the  Election  (sometimes  called  Moderators)  and  Clerks 
of  the  Election,  meet  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  and 
counting  the  ballots  of  the  voters  of  an  election  district. 
When  a  voter  enters  the  polls,  he  gives  his  name  to  the 
Judges,  who  have  the  registration  list  before  them.  When 
his  name  is  found  on  the  list,  it  is  checked  off,  and  an 
envelope  containing  a  ballot  is  given  to  him.  A  ballot  is 
a  slip  or  sheet  of  paper  upon  which  are  printed  the  names 
of  the  great  political  parties  and  the  names  of  the  candi- 
dates for  election.  The  voter  takes  his  ballot  and  passes 
into  a  small  booth  where  he  cannot  be  seen  by  any  one. 

50 


LESSON   X 


51 


In  the  booth  he  finds  writing  material  and  a  shelf  or  desk 
on  which  he  may  write.  If  he  wishes  to  vote  for  all  the 
candidates  of  a  certain  party,  he  makes  a  cross  mark  X 
opposite  the  name  of  that  party.  This  is  called  voting 
"  a  straight  ticket.^'  If  he  wishes  to  vote  for  candidates 
without  respect  to  party,  he   must   make  separate  cross 


A    TOLLING    IJUUi'll 


marks  opposite  the  name  of  each  candidate  for  whom  he 
wishes  to  vote.  This  is  called  *'  splitting  the  ballot." 
After  his  ballot  has  been  properly  marked  the  writer 
returns  to  the  place  where  the  Judges  sit,  and  his  ballot 
is  put  into  a  large  box  which  is  usually  made  of  glass. 

The  above  is  the  method  of  voting  followed   in   most 
States.     It  is  known  as  the  "  Australian  System,"  because 


52  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

it  was  iirst  adopted  in  Australia.  It  is  the  best  method 
that  has  thus  far  been  tried.  A  long  time  ago  men  used 
to  vote  by  calling  out  in  a  loud  voice  the  name  of  their 
favorite  candidate.  But  this  method  often  led  to  quarrels 
and  fights,  and  it  had  to  be  abandoned. ,  The  open  ballot 
was  then  tried.  By  this  method  the  voter  cast  his  ballot 
before  the  judges  and  bystanders  in  such  an  open  way 
that  any  one  who  desired  could  see  how  he  had  voted. 
This  led  to  briheiy.  A  sum  of  money  would  be  given  the 
voter  for  voting  in  a  certain  way,  and  the  man  who  gave 
him  the  money  would  follow  him  up  to  the  polls,  and 
watch  him  to  see  that  he  voted  the  way  he  was  paid  to 
vote.  The  open  ballot  also  led  to  intimidation.  The 
voter  was  frequently  afraid  to  vote  the  way  he  would  like 
to,  lest  he  might  offend  an  employer  or  some  one  else 
whom  he  could  ill  afford  to  offend.  For  such  reasons  as 
these  voting  by  open  ballot  grew  unpopular,  and  the 
Australian  or  secret  ballot  system  was  adopted.  This 
system  has  its  disadvantages.  It  does  not  encourage  men 
to  come  out  openly  and  fearlessly  and  announce  their 
convictions.  Under  the  secret  ballot  law  a  man  by  guard- 
ing his  tongue  and  not  letting  any  one  know  how  he  votes, 
may  deprive  the  community  of  the  influence  of  his  ex- 
ample. It  would  be  better  if  we  could  always  know  how 
good  citizens  vote.  The  great  point  in  favor  of  the  secret 
ballot  is  that  it  helps  to  do  away  with  bribery.  Under  the 
Australian  System  it  is  of  little  use  to  give  the  voter 
money  to  vote  in  a  certain  way,  for  there  is  no  way  to 
follow  him  up  and  see  if  he  votes  as  he  promises.  If  the 
secret  ballot  does  prevent  bribery,  then  every  State  ought 


LESSON  X  53 

to  have  it,  for  bribery  is  one  of  the  worst  evils  in  pohtics. 
A  man  who  gives  a  bribe  to  his  fellow-citizen,  not  only 
debases  that  citizen,  but  he  debauches  society.  A  bribe 
giver  is  a  public  enemy.  What  shall  we  say  of  a  bribe 
taker  ?     Is  he  better  or  worse  than  a  bribe  giver  ? 

Counting  the  Vote  ;  Majority  —  Plurality.  —  Immedi- 
ately after  the  polls  are  closed  the  counting  of  the  votes 
begins.  The  counting  is  done  openly  in  the  presence  of 
a  number  of  people.  The  candidate  who  gets  the  largest 
number  of  votes  is  declared  elected.  Sometimes  a  ina- 
jority  of  the  votes  is  required  to  elect.  By  a  majority  is 
meant  more  than  half  of  all  the  votes  cast.  It  often  hap- 
pens when  there  are  three  or  more  candidates  for  the 
same  office  that  no  one  gets  a  majority  of  all  the  votes. 
In  such  cases  the  one  who  gets  the  highest  number  of 
votes  is  the  successful  candidate,  although  that  number 
is  less  than  half.  Election  by  the  highest  number  of  votes 
is  called  *'  Election  hy  plurality.''  In  some  States  a  candi- 
date must  get  a  majority  of  votes,  or  he  cannot  be  declared 
elected.  Thus,  in  the  State  of  Connecticut,  the  candidate 
for  governor  must  receive  a  majority  of  the  votes  cast.  If 
no  one  receives  a  majority,  the  election  of  a  governor  is 
left  to  the  legislature  of  the  State. 

The  Right  of  holding  Office.  —  Besides  the  right  of  choos- 
ing officers  to  conduct  government,  it  is  the  right  of  the 
American  citizen  to  hold  office.  The  business  of  govern- 
ment requires  the  service  of  a  very  large  number  of  people. 
In  the  counties  there  must  be  road  commissioners,  school 
trustees,  tax  collectors,  sheriffs.  In  a  city  there  must  be 
a  mayor  and  councilmen  and  a  very  long  list  of  officials. 


54  LESSONS  IN   CIVICS 

In  the  State  there  must  be  a  governor  with  his  secretaries, 
and  the  legislature  with  its  senators  and  delegates.  In 
the  nation  there  is  the  President  with  his  cabinet  and 
thousands  of  assistants.  It  would  take  many  pages 
merely  to  name  the  different  offices  of  the  different  gov- 
ernments. Now  it  is  the  boast  of  the  American  citizen 
that,  no  matter  what  his  rank  may  be,  he  has  the  right  to 
hold  any  of  these  offices.  Any  boy  born  in  the  United 
States  may  hope  to  become  President.  It  is  true  that 
only  four  or  five  of  the  millions  of  young  Americans  now 
living  can  ever  be  President,  yet  it  is  also  true  that  those 
boys  who  will  be  our  future  Presidents  may  come  from 
the  lower  walks  of  life.  We  have  had  as  President  of  the 
United  States  a  man  whose  early  occupation  was  that  of  a 
tailor,  and  who  did  not  learn  to  write  until  after  he  was 
married.  It  is  a  great  honor  to  be  chosen  to  a  position 
of  trust  and  power  by  one's  fellow-citizens.  The  great 
trouble  is  men  often  do  mean  and  dishonest  things  to  get 
into  office,  and  then  after  they  are  in  the  office  they  dis- 
grace it  by  their  selfishness  and  corruption.  It  should  be 
the  ambition  of  every  American  youth  to  be  worthy  of 
office. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  THOUGHT 

1.  Smith,  Jones,  and  Brown  are  candidates  for  an  office.  Smith 
gets  5000  votes,  Jones  4000  votes,  and  Brown  3000  votes.  Does  Smith 
get  a  majority  or  a  plurality  of  votes?  What  is  the  smallest  number 
of  votes  that  would  elect  in  this  case  if  a  majority  were  required  ?  What 
does  the  word  minority  mean? 

2.  Discuss  the  evil  effects  of  bribery. 

3.  Who  said  "  I  would  rather  be  right  than  be  President"? 

4.  Should  the  office  seek  the  man,  or  the  man  the  office? 


LESSON   X  55 

5.  Do  you  know  any  candidates  for  office  ?    Are  they  men  well  quali- 
fied for  the  positions  they  are  seeking? 

6.  "  A  weapon  that  comes  down  as  still 

As  snowflakes  fall  upon  the  sod ; 
But  executes  a  freeman's  will 
As  lightning  does  the  will  of  God." 

What  is  the  "weapon"?     Memorize  the  quotation. 

7.  Bound  the  election  district  or  precinct  in  which  you  live. 

8.  Secure,  if  you  can,  a  ballot  used  at  an  election,  and  mark  it  as 
you  would  if  you  were  going  to  vote. 

9.  Discuss  methods  of  preventing  bribery.     Would  you  vote  for  a 
man  who  would  give  bribes  ? 


LESSON   XI 
CITIZENSHIP  (Concluded) 

DUTIES    OF    CITIZENS 

"  Do  what  conscience  says  is  right, 
Do  what  reason  says  is  best, 
Do  with  all  your  mind  and  might, 
Do  your  duty  and  be  blest." 

A  Few  Words  about  Duty.  —  For  several  lessons  we 
have  been  discussing  the  rights  of  citizens ;  in  this  lesson 
we  shall  speak  of  a  few  of  the  duties  of  citizens.  We  are 
all  inclined  to  think  too  much  of  our  rights  and  too  little 
of  our  duties.  We  should  never  forget  that  for  every  right 
we  enjoy  there  is  a  corresponding  duty.  A  right  has  been 
called  the  reward  of  a  duty  fulfilled,  and  this  is  the  way 
to  regard  duty.  After  we  have  done  our  duty,  then  we 
may  claim  our  rights  ;  after  we  have  fulfilled  the  duties  of 
citizenship,  we  may  in  good  conscience  claim  our  rights  as 
citizens.  Government  cannot  give  to  us  more  than  we 
give  to  it.  If  we  are  careless  or  selfish  in  respect  to  our 
duties  to  our  government,  we  may  be  sure  that  it  will  not 
have  so  many  blessings  for  us  as  it  would  have  if  we  were 
watchful  and  faithful  in  our  duty.  Let  us  now  learn  what 
duty  requires  of  all  good  citizens. 

Obedience  to  the  Law.  —  The  first  duty  of  a  citizen  is  to 
obey  the  laws  of  his  country.      Without  obedience  to  law 

56 


LESSON   XI  57 

'  there  can  be  no  such  thing  as  good  government.  Whether 
in  the  home,  in  the  school,  or  in  the  State,  the  violation  of 
law  is  attended  with  some  kind  of  punishment.  When  a 
law  of  the  State  is  broken,  he  who  breaks  it  may  be  fined, 
that  is,  he  may  be  compelled  to  give  up  a  sum  of  money, 
or  he  may  be  imprisoned,  or  he  may  be  both  fined  and  im- 
prisoned. In  the  case  of  murder,  he  who  takes  the  life  of 
another  may  be  compelled  to  give  up  his  own  life.  But  I 
do  not  wish  to  hold  up  the  punishments  of  the  law  before 
you  in  order  to  frighten  you.  I  do  not  want  you  to  obey 
the  law  simply  because  you  are  afraid  of  the  punishment 
that  would  follow  if  you  should  break  it.  People  who 
obey  a  law  through  the  sense  of  fear  are  likely  to  break 
it  if  they  think  they  will  not  be  discovered.  Such  people 
are  satisfied  if  they  can  keep  out  of  jail.  It  is  against  the 
law  to  give  a  man  money  for  his  vote ;  yet  how  many  citi- 
zens violate  this  law  simply  because  they  run  but  little  risk 
of  being  detected  and  punished !  A  bribe  giver  is  no  less 
a  criminal  because  he  escapes  punishment.  Laws  should 
be  obeyed  because  it  is  a  duty  to  obey  them.  It  is  our 
right  to  seek  the  protection  of  the  law ;  it  is  our  duty  to 
do  the  bidding  of  the  law. 

Defense  of  One's  Country.  —  A  most  serious  duty  of  the 
citizen  to  his  government  is  to  defend  it  against  its  ene- 
mies. You  boys  may  at  some  time  in  your  life  be  called 
upon  to  take  up  arms  and  fight  for  your  country.  If  such 
a  time  should  come,  you  should  not  flinch,  but  should  go 
forth  bravely  to  the  battle  field,  prepared  to  lay  down 
your  Hfe,  if  necessary.  But  you  should  not  wish  for  war 
or  try  to  stir  up  strife.     The  good  citizen  will  try  to  avoid 


58  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

war.  Men  and  nations  should  live  at  peace  with  each 
other;  war  is  never  right  unless  it  is  waged  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  the  world  better  in  the  end. 

Earning  a  Living.  —  Every  citizen  should  try  to  earn  an 
honest  living  for  himself  and  those  dependent  upon  him. 
A  man  who  does  not  work  is  a  burden  upon  the  com- 
munity. What  he  eats  and  wears  is  produced  by  the  labor 
of  other  people.  Now,  an  able-bodied  man  who  lives 
upon  the  labor  of  others  loses  his  own  self-respect  and 
deserves  to  lose  the  respect  of  others.  Hence,  a  good 
citizen  will  refuse  to  eat  bread  that  he  has  not  earned,  if  it 
is  possible  for  him  to  earn  bread  for  himself.  Sometimes 
men  cannot  earn  their  own  living,  they  cannot  find  work 
to  do.  When  this  is  the  case,  there  is  something  wrong 
somewhere,  and  it  is  the  duty  of  good  citizens  to  try  to 
discover  where  the  wrong  is  and  to  take  measures  to  rem- 
edy the  wrong.  In  a  land  of  plenty  no  strong-armed  man, 
willing  to  work,  ought  to  be  compelled  to  go  hungry. 

Attention  to  Public  Affairs.  —  It  is  the  duty  of  every  citi- 
zen to  take  an  active  part  in  public  affairs.  He  should 
not  only  vote  for  good  men  and  good  principles,  but  he 
should  try  to  get  other  people  to  vote  for  good  men  and 
good  principles.  In  some  countries,  as  in  China  and 
Russia,  there  are  hereditary  rulers  who  are  above  the 
people,  and  who  govern  according  to  their  own  notions 
of  right  and  wrong.  Such  rulers  command ;  the  people 
obey.  In  our  country,  however,  we  have  no  such  rulers. 
Here  the  people  must  govern  themselves.  If  we  have 
good  government,  the  people  are  to  be  thanked  for  it ;  if 
we  have  bad  government,  it  is  the  people's  fault.      This  i3 


LESSON   XI  59 

why  it  is  the  duty  of  every  citizen  to  do  all  he  can  to  secure 
good  government.  This  is  why  every  citizen  should  take 
a  part  in  politics. 

Duty  of  studying  Political  Questions.  —  Before  you  enter 
politics,  however,  you  should  make  a  careful  study  of  politi- 
cal questions.  There  are  several  great  political  parties  in 
this  country.  If  you  wish  to  cast  your  vote  to  the  best 
advantage,  you  must  vote  for  the  candidates  and  principles 
of  one  of  these  great  parties.  But  before  you  cast  your 
vote  for  a  party,  you  should  learn  what  that  party  wishes 
to  accomplish ;  before  you  vote,  you  should  know  what 
you  are  voting  for. 

While  you  are  at  school  you  may  prepare  yourselves  to 
vote  in  an  intelligent  manner  when  you  come  of  age.  You 
may  do  this  in  two  ways,  —  by  reading  and  by  disatssioji. 
Read  history.  You  cannot  understand  the  present  with- 
out understanding  the  past.  Read  the  lives  of  great  men. 
The  founders  of  our  government  were  unselfish  men. 
Read  what  they  wrote  about  government  and  learn  what 
they  did  for  their  country.  Read  the  history  of  political 
parties  and  study  their  platforms.  Read  works  upon  gov- 
ernment. Read  good  newspapers  and  inform  yourselves 
of  the  political  questions  of  the  day. 

But  reading  is  not  enough.  Along  with  reading  must 
go  discussion.  Our  government  is  founded  upon  free  and 
open  discussion.  This  is  why  citizens  are  guaranteed 
freedom  of  speech.  By  talking  over  a  question  in  a  good- 
natured  way  with  friends  we  learn  a  number  of  things. 
In  the  first  place,  we  learn  more  about  the  question  under 
discussion.      We  almost  always  find  that  our  friend  knows 


6o  LESSONS  IN   CIVICS 

something  about  it  that  we  did  not  know.  Then  we  learn 
to  express  our  thoughts  more  clearly  and  forcibly.  We 
never  know  a  thing  well  enough  until  we  can  tell  it  to 
some  one  else.  Discussion  also  teaches  us  to  have  respect 
for  the  opinions  of  other  people ;  and  this  is  very  good  for 
us.  Above  all,  discussion  is  good  because  it  leads  to  the 
truth. 

When  there  are  a  number  of  people  to  take  part,  the 
best  way  to  conduct  a  discussion  is  through  the  debate. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  THOUGHT 

1.  Can  you  name  a  war  that  was  a  blessing  to  mankind?     One  that 
was  a  curse  ? 

2.  Would  you  fight  for  your  country,  even  if  you  thought  it  was  in 
the  wrong? 

3.  Should  a  citizen  obey  a  bad  law?     Who  shall  judge  whether  a 
law  is  bad  or  good  ? 

4.  Explain  how  a  single  vote  may  decide  the  result  of  an  election. 

5.  What  are  some  of  the  things  a  politician  must  do? 


LESSON   XII 

TAXATION 

"  If  we  live  in  a  country  not  wholly  barbarous,  we  cannot  escape  tax, 
and  it  is  the  fate  of  man  to  bear  his  proportion  of  its  burdens  in  propor- 
tion to  his  expense,  property,  and  consumption."  —  D.  A.  Wells. 

Government  supported  by  Taxes.  —  In  this  lesson  we 
shall  speak  of  a  duty  that  all  citizens  must  perform, — 
the  duty  of  paying  taxes  to  the  government.  It  requires 
a  vast  amount  of  money  to  meet  the  expenses  of  govern- 
ment. Salaries  have  to  be  paid  to  officials,  large  public 
buildings  have  to  be  erected,  fleets  and  armies  have*  to  be 
fitted  out,  charities  have  to  be  supported.  The  money 
required  for  all  this  comes  from  the  pockets  of  the  citizens 
whom  the  government  protects.  The  government  raises 
money  by  means  of  a  tax.  A  tax  is  a  sum  of  money  col- 
lected from  citizens  for  the  support  of  the  government. 
It  is  plain  that  each  citizen  ought  to  be  taxed  according  to 
his  means.  A  man  who  is  very  poor  ought  not  to  be  com- 
pelled to  pay  so  much  as  a  man  who  is  very  rich.  Yet  it 
is  not  easy  to  lay  taxes  justly.  The  rule  generally  followed 
in  laying  taxes  is  this :  Taxes  are  laid  on  property,  and  the 
more  property  a  man  owns,  the  greater  must  be  his  share 
of  the  tax.  Property  is  of  two  kinds,  real  property  and 
personal  property.  Real  property  consists  of  lands  and 
buildings  and  growing  crops.     Personal  property  is  prop- 

6i 


62  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

erty  that  the  owner  can  carry  with  him  from  place  to 
place ;   as  horses,  furniture,  money,  bonds. 

How  each  Taxpayer's  Share  is  Determined.  —  A  tax 
collector  presents  to  your  father  a  tax  bill,  calling  for,  let 
us  say,  $33.50.  How  was  this  bill  made  out  .'^  How  was 
it  determined  that  your  father  should  pay  to  the  support  of 
the  government  just  $33.50,  no  more,  no  less  ?  Let  us  try 
to  get  an  answer  to  this  question. 

Let  us  suppose  that  you  live  in  a  town,  and  that  it  is 
your  town  government  that  has  sent  the  bill.  The  first 
step  taken  is  to  determine  how  much  money  is  needed. 
It  is  found  that  the  town  needs 

For  its  schools,  police,  streets,  water  works,  and  other  ex- 
penses of  Town  Government $40,000 

For  taxes  due  to  the  County  Government 6,000 

For  taxes  due  to  the  State  Government 4,000 

Total  amount  of  taxes  to  be  raised $50,000 

This  $50,000  must  be  paid  by  the  property  owners  of 
the  town.  In  order  to  distribute  the  burden  fairly,  officers 
called  Assessors  visit  all  the  houses  and  places  of  business 
in  the  town,  and  place  upon  every  man's  property  what 
they  think  is  a  fair  valuation.  Thus  they  find  that  A  has 
a  house  worth  $3000  and  furniture  worth  $500,  or  prop- 
erty worth  in  all  $3500:  B  is  found  to  own  a  factory 
worth  $75,000  and  goods  worth  $25,000.  He  is,  therefore, 
assessed  at  $100,000.  C  owns  building  lots  worth  $2000 
and  horses  and  carriages  worth  $500.  C's  property,  there- 
fore, is  put  down  on  the  Assessors'  list  at  $2500.  D  owns 
a  little  house  which  the  Assessor  thinks  is  worth  $400; 


LESSON   XII  63 

his  furniture  is  so  scanty  that  no  value  is  put  upon  it, 
and  it  escapes  taxation.  Your  father's  property,  we  will 
suppose,  is  placed  on  the  Assessors'  list  at  $167$.  In 
this  way  the  value  of  the  property  of  every  taxpayer  in 
town  is  estimated  by  the  Assessors  and  put  upon  the 
assessment  list.  By  adding  together  the  fortunes  of  A, 
B,  C,  D,  etc.,  the  entire  value  of  all  the  property  in  the 
town  is  found.  Let  us  suppose  that  this  amounts  to 
$2,500,000.  You  remember  that  the  amount  to  be  raised 
by  taxation  is  $50,000.  Now  if  property  worth  $2,500,000 
must  pay  $50,000  in  taxes,  property  worth  one  dollar  must 
pay  two  cents  in  taxes.  Every  man  in  the  town,  there- 
fore, must  pay  two  cents  in  taxes  for  every  dollar's  worth 
of  property  he  owns.  This  two  cents,  or  2%,  or  .02  is 
called  the  rate  of  taxation. 

A  will  pay     .     .      $3,500  x  .02     .     .        $70.00  in  taxes, 
B  will  pay     .     .     ico,ooo  x  .02     .     .      2000.00  in  taxes. 

You  now  see  why  your  father's  tax  bill  is  $33.50. 

The  Collection  of  Taxes.  —  After  the  Assessor  comes  the 
Tax  Collector,  This  officer  collects  the  taxes  from  the 
owners  of  property  and  turns  it  over  to  the  treasury  of 
the  town  government.  The  Town  Treasurer  sends  to 
the  County  Treasurer  the  share  that  belongs  to  the 
county,  and  to  the  State  Treasurer  the  share  that  belongs 
to  the  State,  and  retains  what  is  left  for  the  expenses  of 
the  town  government.  When  a  man  refuses  or  neglects 
to  pay  his  tax,  the  law  will  compel  him  to  pay.  The  Tax 
Collector  must  collect  the  taxes,  even  if  he  is  obliged  to 
sell   the  property  to  get   them.     When  land  is  sold  for 


64  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

taxes,  the  owner  may  regain  the  land  by  paying  to  the 
purchaser  within  a  specified  time  the  amount  of  the  taxes 
with  interest. 

Exemption.  —  This  word  means  "  freedom  from  a  bur- 
den or  charge."  Certain  kinds  of  property  are  free  from 
the  burden  of  taxation.  Thus,  churches,  cemeteries,  school- 
houses,  free  libraries,  charitable  institutions,  and  all  pub- 
lic buildings  are  exempt  from  taxation ;  likewise  a  man's 
household  furniture  when  it  is  worth  less  than  a  hundred 
dollars,  in  many  States,  is  not  taxed.  The  laws  of  some 
States  allow  to  soldiers  who  fought  for  the  Union  in  the 
Civil  War  an  exemption  on  property  to  the  amount  of  one 
thousand  dollars. 

**Tax  Dodgers."  —  Men  sometimes  avoid  paying  their 
just  taxes.  They  will  hide  such  property  as  they  can 
hide;  they  will  lie  about  the  value  of  their  property; 
they  will  invest  their  money  in  such  a  way  that  the 
Tax  Collector  cannot  reach  it.  Such  men  are  called  *'tax 
dodgers,"  and  they  are  not  good  citizens.  It  is  not  the 
part  of  good  citizenship  to  defraud  the  government  of  its 
taxes.  Government  protects  men  in  the  enjoyment  of 
their  property,  and  they  ought  to  be  willing  to  give  it 
a  hearty  and  ungrudging  support. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  ORIGINAL  THOUGHT 

I.  When  a  property  owner  thinks  his  property  has  been  assessed  too 
high,  he  may  complain  to  the  Assessors,  and  if  these  officers  think  his 
complaint  is  just,  they  will  reduce  the  assessment.  Suppose  the  owner 
thinks  his  property  has  been  assessed  too  low;  should  he  go  to  the 
Assessors  and  request  them  to  make  the  assessment  larger?  If  a  man 
should  send  you  a  bill  for  three  dollars  when  you  know  you  owe  him 


LESSON   XII  65 

five  dollars,  would  you  call  his  attention  to  the  mistake?     Should  we 
be  as  honest  with  the  government  as  we  are  with  our  neighbors? 

2.  How  is  the  money  for  the  support  of  your  school  raised  ?  Who  is 
the  largest  taxpayer  in  your  school  district?  Does  he  get  more  benefit 
from  the  government  than  any  other  man  in  the  district? 

3.  Name  some  of  the  returns  taxpayers  get  for  the  money  they  pay 
to  the  government. 

4.  Is  wheat  in  a  barn  real  property  or  personal  property? 

5.  What  is  the  tax  rate  in  your  town?  In  your  county?  In  your 
State? 

6.  Name  the  kinds  of  property  in  your  State  that  are  exempt  from 
taxation. 

LESS.  IN  civ.  —  5 


LESSON    XIII 

TAXATION  (Continued) 

"  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties, 
imposts,  and  excises.'' —  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 

Duties  and  Excises.  —  In  our  last  lesson  we  learned  how 
taxes  are  raised  for  the  support  of  the  town,  city,  county, 
and  State  governments.  We  learned  that  the  expenses  of 
these  governments  for  the  most  part  are  met  by  laying  a 
direct  tax  upon  property.  But  the  great  government  of  the 
United  States,  which  requires  nearly  $500,000,000  a  year 
for  expenses,  is  not  supported  by  a  direct  property  tax.  It 
is  supported  mostly  by  indirect  taxation.  What  is  meant 
by  indirect  taxation  will  be  explained  presently.  The  in- 
direct taxes  collected  by  the  government  which  has  its 
capital  at  Washington,  are  either  duties  or  excises.  A 
duty  is  a  tax  or  tariff  laid  upon  goods  that  are  imported 
into  this  country  from  foreign  countries.  This  tax  is  paid 
to  government  officers  by  the  merchant  who  imports  the 
goods.  But  the  merchant  does  not  bear  the  burden  of  the 
tax.  If  he  is  compelled  to  pay  a  duty  of  75  cents  per 
yard  upon  silk  which  he  imports  from  France,  this  75 
cents  is  added  to  the  first  cost.  If,  withoiU  a  duty,  he 
could  sell  his  customers  French  silk  for  ;^i.SO  per  yard  at 
a  profit  of  10%,  ivith  a  duty  of  75  cents,  he  sells  them  the 

66 


I* 

^ilk  fo 


LESSON   XIII  67 


silk  for  ;f^2.32  per  yard.  It  is,  therefore,  the  customers 
who  pay  this  duty,  or  tax.  Excises  are  taxes  paid  by  man- 
ufacturers upon  goods  made  in  this  country.  Thus  the 
taxes  upon  liquors,  tobacco,  and  cigars  are  excises.  An 
excise  tax,  like  a  duty,  is  paid  by  one  person,  but  the  bur- 
den is  usually  shifted  to  another.  If  a  tobacco  manufac- 
turer is  compelled  to  pay  a  tax  of  50  cents  upon  every  box 
of  cigars  he  makes,  he  counts  this  as  a  part  of  the  cost, 
and  charges  his  customers  accordingly.  Duties  and  ex- 
cises are  called  indirect  taxes,  because  the  real  burden  of 
these  taxes  does  not  fall  directly  upon  the  people  who  pay 
them,  but  indirectly  upon  some  one  else.  Excises  and 
duties  are  laid  upon  such  articles  as  beer,  tobacco,  sugar, 
tea,  coffee,  woolen  goods,  cotton  goods,  leather,  -iron,  tin, 
etc.  From  this  we  see  that  everybody  who  wears  clothes 
and  consumes  food,  that,  is,  the  whole  population,  contrib- 
utes something  to  the  support  of  the  National  Govern- 
ment. 

The  Income  Tax.  —  Besides  the  general  property  tax, 
and  duties  and  excises,  there  are  several  other  kinds  of 
taxes  that  we  must  mention.  Important  among  these  is 
the  i7icoine  tax.  An  income  tax  is  laid  upon  a  man's  sal- 
ary, or  upon  the  profits  of  his  business,  without  reference 
to  the  amount  of  property  he  owns.  A  certain  rate  is  de- 
termined upon  by  the  government,  and  every  man  must 
pay  according  to  his  income.  If  the  rate  is  3%,  and  his 
salary  or  the  profit  of  his  business  is  $3000,  then  he  must 
pay  $90  as  his  income  tax.  A  progressive  income  tax  is 
one  where  the  rate  grows  larger  with  the  income.  Thus 
the  rate  might  be  3%  for  all  incomes  under  1^5000;  4%  for 


6S  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

all  incomes  between  ^5000  and  $10,000;  5%  for  all  in- 
comes between  ;^io,ooo  and  $50,000;  S%  for  incomes 
between  $50,000  and  $100,000;  10%  for  all  incomes  over 
$100,000.     Do  you  think  a  progressive  income  tax  is  just? 

Licenses  ;  Fees.  —  Another  way  of  raising  money  for  the 
support  of  government  is  by  licenses  and  fees.  A  license 
is  a  sum  of  money  paid  to  the  government  for  the  privilege 
of  engaging  in  some  occupation  or  of  performing  some  act. 
The  liquor  license  permits  the  holder  to  sell  liquor;  the 
merchant's  license  permits  the  sale  of  goods  ;  the  marriage 
license  permits  the  marriage  of  the  couple  to  whom  it  is 
granted.  A  fee  is  a  small  sum  paid  to  an  officer  of  the 
government  for  the  performance  of  some  public  service. 
Thus  if  you  wish  to  get  a  deed  to  land  properly  recorded, 
you  will  have  to  pay  the  recording  officer  a  small  fee. 

Poll  Tax.  —  This  word  poll  means  head ;  a  poll  tax, 
therefore,  is  a  tax  upon  the  man  and  not  upon  property. 
It  is  usually  a  small  sum,  not  exceeding  three  dollars  for 
each  man.  A  male  citizen  above  the  age  of  twenty-one 
must  pay  this  tax,  although  he  has  no  property  at  all.  Not 
all  states  do  have  a  poll  tax,  yet  where  there  is  such  a  tax, 
it  must  be  paid  before  the  citizen  is  allowed  to  vote.  The 
poll  tax  is  not  popular  in  the  United  States,  and  in  some  of 
the  States  it  is  forbidden  entirely. 

Franchises.  —  A  government  sometimes  adds  to  its  reve- 
nue by  the  sale  of  its  franchises,  h  franchise  is  a  particu- 
lar right  given  to  a  person  or  a  body  of  persons.  Very 
often  governments  have  valuable  franchises  to  dispose  of. 
For  instance,  the  right  to  use  the  streets  of  a  city  for  a 
railway  is  very  valuable ;  the  right  to  lay  pipes  for  sup- 


LESSON   XIII  69 

plying  a  city  with  gas  is  a  desirable  franchise.  In  one 
of  our  large  cities  every  street  car  company  is  compelled  to 
pay  9%  of  its  gross  earnings  into  the  city  treasury.  Gov- 
ernments should  watch  their  franchises  with  a  jealous  eye, 
and  should  not  part  with  them  without  making  a  good 
bargain  for  the  public.  Too  often  when  a  franchise  is 
granted  the  bargain  is  made  in  the  interest  of  private 
parties. 

Eminent  Domain.  —  Closely  related  to  the  government's 
right  of  taxation,  is  its  right  of  "eminent  domain."  By 
this  is  meant  its  right  to  take  private  property  for  public 
uses.  If  the  government  wishes  to  use  your  house  for  a 
post  office,  or  if  it  desires  to  run  a  street  through  your 
garden,  or  a  road  through  your  field,  you  have  not  the 
power  to  prevent  it.  Yet  the  government  must  pay  you  a 
fair  price  for  your  property,  and  it  must  not  compel  you  to 
part  with  it  unless  it  can  be  shown  that  it  is  for  the  public 
good  that  you  should  do  so. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  THOUGHT 

1.  Do  all   citizens  have  to   pay   taxes?     Think   well   before   you 
answer  this  question. 

2.  What  kind  of  taxes  are  paid  without  those  who  pay  them  seem- 
ing to  know  it  ? 

3.  Has  taxation  ever  been  a  cause  of  war? 

4.  How  are  churches  supported? 

5.  Where  are  duties  collected? 

6.  Is  a  poll  tax  a  just  tax?     Is  there  a  poll  tax  in  your  State? 

7.  What  is  meant  by  "smuggling"? 

8.  Is  an  income  tax  that  exempts  all  incomes  under  $1000  just? 

9.  For  what  do  people  pay  taxes  most  cheerfully? 
10.    How  may  a  city  acquire  land  for  a  park? 


LESSON    XIV 
SEVERAL  TERMS  EXPLAINED 

"  Self-government  stimulates  the  interest  of  the  people  in  the  affairs 
of  their  neighborhood,  sustains  local  political  life,  educates  the  citizen 
in  the  daily  round  of  civic  duty." — James  Bryce. 

"  A  representative  government,  made  responsible  at  short  periods  of 
election,  produces  the  greatest  sum  of  happiness  to  mankind."  —  Thoinas 
Jefferson. 

Self-Government.  —  In  this  lesson  I  wish  you  to  learn 
the  meaning  of  several  words  that  you  often  meet  with 
when  reading  of  government.  The  first  word  discussed 
shall  be  ''self-government."  This  word  does  not  mean 
exactly  self-control  or  government  of  self.  Let  us  see 
what  it  does  mean. 

In  a  family  the  father  and  mother  govern,  the  other 
members  obey.  The  children  in  a  family  do  not  choose 
their  governors,  and  they  do  not  take  part  in  making  the 
rules  of  the  household.  And  so  it  is  in  the  schoolroom. 
There  the  teacher  governs  and  the  pupils  obey.  The  pu- 
pils have  no  voice  in  the  choice  of  the  teacher,  they  take 
no  part  in  making  the  rules  of  the  school,  they  cannot  set 
aside  the  school  government.  Government  is  given  to 
them  by  a  power  above  them.  Now,  in  the  government  of 
the  town,  the  city,  the  State,  and  the  Nation,  all  this  is 
changed.     In  these  governments  the  people  obey  no  power 

70 


I 


LESSON   XIV  71 


outside  of  and  above  themselves ;  they  obey  only  the  laws 
that  they  themselves  make  and  the  officers  of  government 
that  they  themselves  choose.  In  other  words,  they  govern 
themselves.  Where  the  whole  number  of  adult  male  citi- 
zens, then,  take  a  part  in  government,  where  they  make 
their  own  laws,  lay  their  own  taxes,  elect  their  own  rulers, 
there  is  self-government.  And  a  dangerous  and  difficult 
and  precious  thing  it  is.  Self-government  is  the  greatest 
task  ever  undertaken  by  men.  It  was  tried  by  the  people 
of  Greece  and  Rome  in  ancient  times,  but  through  the  sel- 
fishness and  ambition  of  men  it  failed.  A  little  more  than 
a  hundred  years  ago,  our  forefathers  undertook  the  task. 
By  exercising  wisdom  and  forbearance  and  courage,  they 
succeeded  in  forming  a  government  that  should  rest  upon 
the  will  of  the  people.  This  government  has  come  down 
to  us,  and  is  to-day  in  our  keeping.  Thus  far  we  have 
proven  ourselves  worthy  of  the  trust.  We  make  mistakes, 
but,  take  it  all  in  all,  we  govern  ourselves  very  well.  In  a 
few  years  government  will  be  in  the  hands  of  you  who  are 
in  school.  Will  you  choose  to  govern  yourselves,  or  will 
you  prefer  to  have  a  king,  perhaps  a  tyrant,  to  rule  over 
you  ?  Could  you  now  for  one  hour  govern  yourselves  in 
the  schoolroom  ? 

Representative  Government.  —  Where  the  people  who 
compose  a  government  are  few  in  number,  as  in  some 
of  the  cantons  of  Switzerland  and  towns  of  New  Eng- 
land, all  can  meet  in  a  body  and  discuss  public  affairs, 
enact  laws,  and  elect  officers.  In  such  governments  every 
citizen  has  a  direct  voice  in  the  management  of  public 
affairs.     Where  all  the  people  meet  at  one  place  for  the 


72  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

purpose  of  transacting  the  business  of  government,  there 
is  said  to  be  a  pure  democracy.  The  word  democracy 
means  govermnent  by  the  people.  But  you  can  see  that  a 
large  city  or  a  State  cannot  be  a  pure  democracy,  for  all 
the  citizens  of  a  large  city  or  of  a  State  cannot  meet  at  one 
place.  How,  then,  can  all  the  people  of  a  State  have  a 
voice  in  the  making  of  a  law,  or  take  part  in  the  man- 
agement of  their  government  ?  They  cannot  take  part 
directly,  but  they  may  indirectly  in  the  following  way : 

A  number  of  citizens  may  choose  one  of  their  number 
to  act  in  their  stead  ;  the  citizens  of  a  town  or  of  a  county 
may  choose  one  or  two  of  its  citizens  to  meet  with  other 
citizens  chosen  in  the  same  way  from  other  towns  and 
counties.  If  there  are  fifty  counties  in  a  State,  and  the 
citizens  of  each  county,  instead  of  going  themselves,  elect 
two  of  their  number  to  go  to  the  capital  of  the  State  for  the 
purpose  of  making  laws,  the  lawmaking  body  of  the  State 
will  consist  of  one  hundred  men.  This  srnall  body  will  act 
in  the  name  of  several  hundreds  of  thousands  of  people, 
and  the  laws  it  passes  will  be  as  binding  as  if  they  had  been 
passed  by  all  the  people  coming  together  in  an  immense 
throng.  A  man  who  acts  in  the  place  of  and  with  the 
authority  of  other  men  represents  those  men,  and  is  called 
their  representative ;  and  governments  that  are  conducted 
by  a  few  people  chosen  to  act  in  the  name  of  all  the  peo- 
ple are  representative  governments. 

All  the  governments,  with  one  exception,  which  we  shall 
study  hereafter,  are  representative  governments.  Strictly 
speaking,  they  are  representative  democracies,  that  is,  they 
are  governments  in  which  the  people  rule  through  their 


I 


LESSON   XIV  73 


representatives.  Citizens  who  stay  at  home,  and  send 
others  to  represent  them  in  public  affairs,  are  called  the 
constiticents  of  those  who  are  sent.  This  question  is  often 
discussed  :  Should  the  representative  act  according  to  the 
wishes  of  his  constituents } 

The  Three  Departments  of  Government.  —  In  all  good 
and  free  governments  there  is  a  division  of  power  ;  or,  to 
state  the  fact  in  another  way,  the  work  of  government 
is  distributed  among  different  sets  of  men.  There  is  one 
set  of  men  who  have  the  right  to  make  the  laws.  This  is 
called  the  legislative,  or  lawmaking  branch  of  government. 
There  is  another  set  of  men  who  decide  what  the  meaning 
of  the  law  is,  who  are  guilty  of  breaking  it,  and  what  pun- 
ishment shall  follow.  These  men  are  called  judges,  and 
they  exercise  tho,  judicial  power  of  government.  After  the 
legislative  department  has  made  a  law,  and  the  judicial 
department  has  made  its  decision,  a  third  department  en- 
forces the  law.  This  is  the  executive  department.  The 
three  departments  of  government,  therefore,  are,  first,  the 
legislative,  or  lawmaking  department ;  second,  X,\\q  judicial 
department ;  and,  third,  the  executive,  or  law-enforcing  de- 
partment. The  government  of  the  home  and  school  have 
not  this  division  of  powers.  The  teacher  may  make  a 
rule,  decide  who  has  broken  it,  and  punish  the  offender, 
thus  exercising  all  three  of  the  powers  of  government. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  THOUGHT 

1.  What  countries  in  the  world  besides  our  own  enjoy  self-govern- 
ment? 

2.  What  is  a  monarchy?  Name  some  of  the  great  monarchs  of  the 
world. 


74  LESSONS   IN  CIVICS 

3.  Do  you  think  it  would  be  wise  to  intrust  the  lawmaking  power  of 
the  school  to  pupils?      The  judicial  power?     The  executive  power? 

4.  What  reason  can  you  give  for  the  division  of  the  power  of  gov- 
ernment? 

5.  Elect  one  of  your  schoolmates  to  represent  the  school  in  a  spell- 
ing contest.     One  to  represent  the  school  in  a  debate. 

6.  What  is  an  aristocracy? 

7.  You  will  doubtless  at  some  time  find  people  who  do  not  believe 
in  a  democracy.     What  arguments  will  you  advance  in  its  favor? 


I 


LESSON   XV 

TOWN  GOVERNMENT 

"The  town  governments  of  New  England  proved  themselves  the 
wisest  invention  ever  devised  by  the  wit  of  man  for  the  perfect  exercise 
of  self-government  and  for  its  preservation." —  Thomas  Jefferson. 

Early  Town   Government   in   New  England.  —  In   New 

England,  after  you  pass  from  the  governments  of  the 
home  and  of  the  school,  the  government  that  you  meet 
with  first,  if  you  do  not  live  in  a  city,  is  that  of  the  tow7i. 
Town  government  is  an  interesting  study  even  to  those 
who  do  not  live  in  New  England,  for  it  is  a  very  old  form 
of  government,  and  it  is  one  that  is  best  fitted  to  train 
men  in  the  practice  of  citizenship. 

If  we  trace  our  ancestors  back  to  their  homes  in  Eng- 
land, or  further  back  to  their  homes  upon  the  continent  of 
Europe,  where  they  first  lived,  we  shall  find  that  the  town 
was  their  unit  of  government.  A  town,  or  tun  (toon),  in 
the  earliest  times  was  a  cluster  of  farmers'  dwellings, 
barns,  and  cattle  sheds,  such  as  may  be  seen  to-day  in 
many  parts  of  Germany.  Around  the  tOn  was  either  a 
wall  of  earth  or  a  dense  hedge,  and  outside,  encircling  the 
mound  or  hedge,  was  a  ditch.  The  tun  was  thus  fortified 
against  its  foes.  In  the  center  of  the  inclosure,  usually 
under  a  large  tree,  was  held,  the  tun  vioot^  or  meeting  of 

75 


^6  LESSONS  IN  CIVICS 

all  the  freemen  of  the  tun.  At  this  moot  newcomers  were 
admitted  to  dwell  within  the  tun,  lands  were  granted  to 
freemen,  *'  strife  of  farmer  and  farmer  was  settled,"  laws 
ior  the  government  of  the  tun  were  passed,  and  officers 
to  execute  those  laws  were  elected.  In  the  tun  moot, 
indeed,  were  done  most  of  the  things  that  any  government 
can  rightly  do,  and  these  things  were  done  by  the  people 
themselves  meeting  in  a  body.  Two  thousand  years  ago 
our  forefathers  governed  themselves  in  the  tun  moot  in 
the  wilds  of  Germany;  when  they  settled  in  England 
fifteen  hundred  years  ago  they  carried  the  tun  moot  with 
them ;  and  when,  nearly  three  hundred  years  ago,  the 
Pilgrims  landed  at  Plymouth,  they  at  once  came  together 
in  tun  moot,  or  town  meeting,  for  the  purpose  of  transact- 
ing public  affairs. 

The  Englishmen  who  first  settled  in  New  England  were 
a  very  religious  people.  One  of  the  first  things  they  did 
in  a  new  settlement  was  to  build  a  church  in  some  place 
convenient  for  all  to  attend.  This  church  was  called  a 
meetinghouse,  and  this  was  a  good  name  for  it,  for  it  was 
a  common  meeting  place  for  all  in  the  settlement.  The 
congregation  that  met  in  it  on  the  Sabbath  as  worshipers 
would  meet  in  it  on  a  week  day  as  citizens  and  transact 
public  affairs.  Thus  government  in  New  England  cen- 
tered around  a  church.  A  congregation  of  churchgoers 
was  organized  as  a  government,  and  this  government  was 
called  a  town.  When  a  town  became  so  large  in  extent 
that  it  was  inconvenient  for  all  to  attend  church,  a  new 
church  was  built  and  a  new  town  was  organized.  You 
rarely  find  a  town  in  New  England  so  large  that  a  person 


I 


LESSON  XV  yy 


cannot  with  convenience  attend  a  church  situated  in  its 
center.  Every  male  citizen  above  twenty-one  years  of  age 
who  attended  the  church  —  and  everybody  was  required 
to  go  to  church  —  had  the  right  to  go  to  the  meeting- 
house and  take  part  in  the  town  meetings.  Voters  are 
no  longer  required  to  attend  church,  but  in  other  respects 
the  town  governments  of  New  England  to-day  are  almost 
exactly  like  those  of  the  early  years  of  our  history. 

The  Town  Meeting.  —  The  most  important  feature  of 
the  town  government  is  the  town  meeting.  Once  a  year 
all  the  qualified  voters  of  the  town  meet  together  to  dis- 
cuss measures  relating  to  town  affairs,  and  to  take  action 
thereon.  The  meeting  is  no  longer  held  in  a  church,  but 
in  the  townhoicse,  or  townhall.  When  the  people  have 
assembled,  the  town  clerk  calls  them  to  order,  and  states 
the  purposes  for  which  the  meeting  was  called.  A  mod- 
eratoi'  is  then  chosen  to  preside  over  the  meeting,  and 
business  proceeds  according  to  Parliamentary  rules.  In  a 
town  meeting  we  see  pure  democracy  at  work.  Instead 
of  sending  men  to  conduct  affairs  for  them,  as  in  a  repre- 
sentative government,  the  people  are  there  in  person. 
Young  and  old,  rich  and  poor,  take  part  in  the  proceed- 
ings, and  any  citizen  present  may  exert  the  full  force 
of  his  character  and  influence.  Every  measure  that  is 
brought  up  is  freely  discussed  and  criticised.  Those  in 
favor  of  the  measure  state  their  argument  for  it;  those 
opposed  to  it  state  their  objections.  When  the  discussion 
is  at  an  end  a  vote  is  taken,  and  whatever  the  result  may 
be  all  present  feel  that  the  will  of  the  people  has  been 
expressed.     All  matters  relating  to  the  public  affairs  of 


y8  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

the  town  are  settled.      The  most  important  things  done 
are  these : 

(i)  The  rate  of  taxation  is  fixed.  Money  is  appropri- 
ated for  the  schools,  for  the  care  of  the  roads,  for  the 
support  of  the  poor,  for  the  salaries  of  officers,  and  for 
other  necessary  expenses. 

(2)  By-laws  are  passed  for  the  regulation  of  local  mat- 
ters. The  word  by  originally  meant  town  ;  hence  a  by-law 
is  a  town  law.  A  law  passed  in  town  meeting  forbidding 
the  use  of  the  sidewalks  of  the  town  for  bicycling  is  an 
example  of  a  by-law. 

(3)  Town  officers  are  elected.  It  would  be  impossible 
for  all  the  people  of  a  town  to  meet  together  every  day 
for  the  transaction  of  public  business.  For  this  reason  at 
the  annual  town  meeting  officers  are  elected  to  manage  the 
affairs  of  the  town  in  the  name  of  the  people  for  one  year. 

Town  Officers : 

(i)  The  Selectmen. — The  general  management  of  town 
affairs  during  the  year  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  three,  or 
five,  or  seven,  or  nine  citizens,  called  Selectmen.  These 
officers  carry  into  effect  the  measures  passed  at  the  town 
meeting.  They  supervise  the  laying  out  of  roads ;  they 
grant  licenses;  they  care  for  the  poor;  they  take  meas- 
ures to  abate  nuisances,  check  the  advance  of  contagious 
diseases,  and  otherwise  preserve  the  health  of  the  town ; 
they  listen  to  complaints  against  the  management  of 
town  affairs ;  they  represent  the  town  in  court  when  it  is 
sued;  they  make  out  the  warrant  when  a  special  town 
meeting  is  to  be  called. 


^/h- 


LESSON   XV  79 


(2)  The  Town  Clerk.  —  This  officer  has  numerous  duties. 
We  have  seen  that  it  is  he  who  calls  the  town  meeting  to 
order.  He  must  always  be  present  at  a  town  meeting, 
and  keep  a  record  of  the  proceedings.  In  addition  to 
this  he  keeps  a  record  of  the  births,  marriages,  and  deaths 
in  the  town,  and  grants  certificates  to  those  wishing  to 
marry.  In  fact,  most  matters  of  town  record  are  in  his 
keeping. 

(3)  Assessors.  —  The  duty  of  these  officers  was  spoken 
of  under  the  subject  of  taxation.  They  make  out  a  list  of 
the  taxpayers  of  the  town,  and  place  an  estimate  upon 
value  of  their  property.  The  selectmen  themselves  may 
act  as  assessors,  or  they  may  appoint  men  to  act  in  their 
stead. 

(4)  Tax  Collectors.  —  These  officers  also  have  been  men- 
tioned. They  take  the  Hst  made  out  by  assessors  and 
gather  the  taxes  from  the  people. 

(5)  Town  Treasurer. — The  duties  of  this  officer  have 
been  described  in  Lesson  XII.  The  treasurer  cannot  pay 
out  any  money  from  the  treasury  without  an  order  from 
the  selectmen. 

(6)  Overseers  of  the  Poor.  —  These  officers  have  charge 
of  the  town  almshouse,  and  they  give  relief  to  the  deserv- 
ing poor. 

(7)  The  School  Committee.  —  The  duties  of  this  com- 
mittee have  been  described  in  your  study  of  the  govern- 
ment of  the  school.  In  large  towns  where  there  are  a 
number  of  schools  the  School  Committee,  or  Board  of 
Education,  appoints  a  Superintendent  of  Schools.  This 
officer  devotes  his  time  to  "grading  the  schools  properly, 


8o  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

and  trying  to  improve  them  by  giving  aid  and  counsel  to 
the  teachers. 

(8)  Constables.  —  These  are  peace  officers,  and  every 
town  has  one  or  more  of  them.  They  arrest  for  crime, 
and  assist  the  selectmen  in  executing  the  law.  In  some 
towns  the  constables  serve  as  tax  collectors. 

(9)  Surveyors  of  Highways.  —  These  officers  inspect 
roads  and  bridges,  and  are  responsible  for  keeping  them 
in  repair. 

(10)  Fence  Vieivers. — These  officers  settle  disputes  that 
may  arise  between  neighbors  about  partition  fences  or  walls. 

(11)  Field  Drivers. —  When  cows,  or  horses,  or  other 
animals  are  found  wandering  about  the  town  the  field 
driver  puts  them  into  a  pound,  and  keeps  them  until  their 
rightful  owner  is  found. 

This  list  of  officers  is  not  complete,  yet  it  is  long  enough 
to  show  that  a  great  many  people  take  part  in  the  govern- 
ment of  a  town.  It  is  quite  possible  that  there  are  towns 
in  which  there  is  hardly  one  intelligent  citizen  who  has 
not  sometime  in  his  life  held  public  office.  This  general 
participation  in  the  business  of  government  does  much 
to  make  the  people  of  New  England  a  most  wide-awake 
and  progressive  body  of  citizens. 

Nothing  has  been  said  in  reference  to  the  administra- 
tion of  justice  in  a  New  England  town,  for  the  reason  that 
justice  is  rather  an  affair  of  the  State  than  of  the  town ; 
and  what  you  need  to  know  on  this  point  will  be  explained 
when  we  come  to  describe  the  judicial  department  of  the 
State  government. 


I 


LESSON   XV  8 1 


One  thing  about  town  government  not  yet  mentioned 
deserves  particular  attention.  In  New  England,  towns 
have  the  honor  of  being  represented  in  the  legislature  of 
the  State.  In  the  other  States  of  the  Union  representa- 
tives to  the  State  legislature  are  sent  by  counties. 

QUESTIONS  AND  DIRECTIONS  FOR  WORK 

1.  A  special  town  meeting  may  be  held  upon  a  warrant  from  the 
selectmen.  Obtain  from  the  town  clerk  a  copy  of  such  a  warrant,  and, 
following  the  form  used,  make  out  a  warrant  for  calling  a  meeting  to 
discuss  the  question  of  establishing  a  town  library.  Organize  your 
class  as  a  town  meeting.  It  would  be  wise  to  elect  your  teacher  as 
moderator.     Discuss,  as  in  a  town  meeting,  the  following  topics : 

(a)  Advantages  of  a  public  library. 

(d)  A  good  location  for  a  library  building. 

(c)  The  probable  cost  of  the  library. 
(^)  Whether  public  sentiment  favors  a  library. 

After  a  full  discussion  vote  upon  the  question. 

2.  What  kind  of  men  make  good  selectmen?  What  should  be  the 
qualifications  of  a  good  town  clerk? 

3.  What  are  the  boundaries  of  the  town  in  which  you  live?  When 
was  your  town  organized?     Is  there  a  church  near  its  center? 

4.  Make  out  a  Ust  of  the  names  of  all  who  now  hold  town  offices. 

5.  Should  boys  and  girls  be  allowed  to  take  part  in  town  meetings? 
Are  they  represented  there? 

6.  In  what  things  should  a  town  try  to  excel?  In  what  does  your 
town  excel? 

7.  How  much  money  is  raised  by  taxation  in  your  town?  What  is 
the  tax  rate?  Is  this  higher  or  lower  than  the  rate  in  neighboring 
towns? 

LESS.  IN  CIV.  — 6 


LESSON   XVI 

THE  COUNTY 

*'The  Virginia  county  was  the  most  perfect  reprotiuction  of  the 
English  shire  to  be  found  in  America."  —  Macy. 

The  Virginia  County.  —  If  you  live  on  a  farm,  or  in  a 
small  village  that  has  no  government  of  its  own,  the  gov- 
ernment that  you  will  take  the  most  direct  interest  in  will 
be  either  that  of  the  county,  or  that  of  the  town,  or  that 
of  the  township.  If  you  live  in  a  Southern  State  or  in  a 
Western  State,  the  government  that  will  come  closest  to 
you  in  your  daily  life  will  be  that  of  the  county. 

County  government,  like  town  government,  was  brought 
to  America  from  England.  In  earliest  times  England  con- 
sisted of  many  independent  kingdoms,  each  ruled  by  its 
own  king.  When  war  arose  between  two  kings,  —  and 
war  was  constantly  arising,  —  the  conqueror  took  posses- 
sion of  the  conquered  kingdom  and  made  of  its  ruler  an 
under  king.  In  the  course  of  time  all  the  small  kingdoms 
were  brought  under  the  rule  of  one  king  —  the  king  of 
England.  The  under  kings  remained  at  the  head  of  their 
little  governments,  but  their  rank  and  their  power  were 
gone.  They  were  no  longer  kings  but  counts,  or  assistants 
of  the  king,  and  the  land  they  governed  were  counties. 
The  business  of  the  county  government,  principally,  was 
to  hold  the  county  court  and  to  collect  taxes  for  the  king. 

83 


I 


LESSON   XVI  83 


When  the  Virginia  colonists  settled  at  Jamestown,  in  1607, 
they  found  it  convenient  to  organize  new  settlements  as 
counties,  after  the  manner  of  those  in  the  old  country.  In 
the  center  of  the  county  was  held  the  County  Court.  The 
place  where  the  court  was  held  became  the  county  seat,  or 
capital  of  the  county.  In  every  county  seat  there  was 
a  building  known  as  the  courthouse,  where  most  of  the 
business  of  the  county  government  was  transacted.  The 
county  government  in  Virginia  and  other  Southern  colo- 
nies was  quite  different  in  olden  times  from  what  it  is 
to-day.  But  in  several  respects  it  was  like  the  county 
government  of  to-day.  First,  it  was  a  representative  gov- 
ernment. The  public  business  of  the  county  was  not  man- 
aged by  the  people  directly,  as  in  a  New  England  town, 
but  by  officers  who  acted  in  the  name  and  in  the  place  of 
the  people.  Second,  it  was  the  county  in  Virginia  that 
sent  representatives  to  the  Colonial  Legislature,  just  as 
to-day,  in  Southern  States,  it  is  the  county  that  sends 
representatives  to  the  State  Legislature.  Third,  the 
colonial  county,  like  the  county  of  our  own  time,  had  its 
county  seat  and  county  courthouse.  We  shall  now  learn 
something  of  the  government  of  the  county  as  it  is  found 
in  the  Southern  States. 

County  Officers  : 

(i)  The  County  Commissioners,  —  Most  of  the  public 
business  of  the  county  is  done  by  a  Board  of  County 
Commissioners.  This  Board  consists  of  three  men  — 
sometimes  of  a  larger  number  —  elected  by  the  people  of 
the  county  to  serve  for  a  term  of  from  one  to  four  years. 


84  LESSONS   IN  CIVICS 

The  powers  and  duties  of  the  County  Commissioners  are 
regulated  by  the  laws  passed  by  the  Legislature  of  the 
State.  The  powers  usually  exercised  by  the  Commission- 
ers are  these : 

(i)  They  fix  the  rate  of  taxation  for  the  county. 

(2)  They  appoint  assessors,  tax  collectors,  road  super- 
visors. 

(3)  They  make  contracts  for  repairing  old  roads  and 
opening  new  ones,  and  also  for  building  and  repairing 
bridges. 

(4)  They  make  contracts  for  building  and  repairing  pub- 
lic buildings,  such  as  courthouses,  jails,  and  almshouses. 

(5)  They  appropriate  money  for  the  support  of  schools, 
for  the  payment  of  salaries  of  county  officers,  and  for  all 
necessary  expenses  of  county  government. 

(6)  They  represent  the  county  in  the  courts  when  it  is 
sued  for  damages. 

(2)  The  Sheriff.  —  In  England  a  long  time  ago  the 
sheriff  was  the  most  powerful  officer  in  the  county.  In 
modern  times,  however,  his  power  is  not  so  great  either 
in  England  or  in  this  country.  Nevertheless,  the  sheriff 
is  still  an  important  officer  of  the  county.  He  has  been 
called  the  "arm  of  the  judge."  This  means  that  he  car- 
ries out  the  orders  of  the  judge.  If  the  judge  orders  a 
man  to  be  taken  to  prison,  the  sheriff  takes  him ;  if  he 
orders  property  to  be  sold,  the  sheriff  sells  it ;  if  he  sen- 
tences a  man  to  be  hung,  the  sheriff  hangs  him.  It  is  the 
duty  also  of  the  sheriff  to  preserve  peace  and  order.  If 
there  is   a  riot,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  sheriff  to  quell  it. 


LESSON  XVI  85 


p  helpers.  In  times  of  great  danger  or  disturbance,  the 
sheriff  may  call  to  his  aid  the  posse  comitatiis,  that  is, 
every  able-bodied  man  in  the  county.  The  sheriff  lives 
at  the  county  seat  and  has  charge  of  the  county  jail  and 
of  its  prisoners. 

(3)  The  Clerk  of  the  County  Court.  —  Any  court  above 
a  police  court,  or  above  that  of  a  justice  of  the  peace,  is 
a  '* court  of  record" ;  that  is,  its  proceedings  are  enrolled 
in  permanent  form.  The  county  court  is  a  court  of 
record,  and  the  man  who  keeps  its  records  is  called  the 
Clerk  of  the  Court.  This  officer  is  a  kind  of  secretary  to 
the  judge.  He  writes  out  an  account  of  trials  and  keeps 
a  record  of  the  judgments  of  the  court.  Besides  this, 
he  keeps  a  record  of  deeds  and  mortgages  given  in  the 
county,  issues  marriage  certificates,  and  records  all  births 
and  deaths.     He  is  elected  by  the  people. 

(4)  The  Orphans'  Court.  —  It  is  usual  for  a  county  to 
elect  three  men  'di^  Judges  of  the  Orpharis'  Court.  It  is 
the  business  of  these  officers  to  examine  the  wills  of 
deceased  persons  and  decide  whether  they  have  been 
made  as  wills  by  law  ought  to  be  made.  When  a  person 
dies  without  having  made  a  will,  and  leaves  no  one  to  take 
charge  of  his  estate,  the  Orphans'  Court  will  appoint  an 
Administrator  to  take  charge  of  it.  When  a  child  is  left 
without  father  or  mother,  the  Orphans'  Court  will  appoint 
a  guardian  who  will  manage  the  estate  until  the  child 
comes  of  age.  In  general,  the  business  of  the  Orphans* 
Court  is  to  see  that  the  property  of  the  dead  falls  into 
rightful  hands. 


86  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

(5)  Register  of  Wills,  —  Closely  connected  with  the 
work  of  the  Orphans'  Court  is  the  work  of  the  Register  of 

Wills.     This  officer  keeps  copies  of  all  wills  approved  of 
by  the  Orphans'  Court. 

(6)  Tax  Collectors.  —  A  county  is  divided  into  districts 
of  convenient  size  for  the  purpose  of  holding  elections, 
registering  voters,  and  collecting  taxes.  For  each  district 
a  collector  of  taxes  is  appointed. 

(7)  The  County  Treasicrer.  —  The  several  collectors  of 
taxes  send  the  money  which  they  collect  to  the  County 
Treasurer.  The  treasurer  pays  out  as  well  as  receives 
all  money  raised  by  taxation.  He  must  give  bond  for 
the  faithful  and  honest  performance  of  his  duties.  If  he 
steals  any  of  the  public  money,  his  bondsmen  are  bound 
to  make  good  the  loss. 

(8)  The  Auditor.  —  Sometimes  the  county  elects  an 
Auditory  whose  duty  it  is  to  examine  the  books  of  the 
treasurer  and  other  officers,  and  report  whether  the  pub- 
lic accounts  are  properly  and  honestly  kept. 

(9)  The  Coroner.  —  When  a  person  is  murdered,  or  is 
found  dead,  or  dies  mysteriously,  there  ought  to  be  some 
officer  to  take  charge  of  the  body  of  the  dead  person,  and 
to  inquire  at  once  into  the  cause  of  the  death.  Such  an 
officer  is  the  Coroner —  usually  a  physician.  If  you  should 
ever  come  upon  a  dead  body  do  not  disturb  it,  but  notify 
the  coroner  as  quickly  as  possible.  If  he  thinks  that  there 
has  been  foul  play,  he  will  summon  six  or  twelve  men  to 
act  as  a  coroner's  jury,  and  an  examination  will  be  made. 
Witnesses  will  be  summoned,  and  the  jury,  after  hearing 
evidence,  will  state  in  writing  what  they  think  has  been 


I 


LESSON  XVI  Sy 


the  cause  of  the  death.  This  is  called  holding  a  **  Coro- 
ner's Inquest." 

(lo)  T/ie  State* s  Attorney, — This  officer,  elected  by  the 
people,  is  a  lawyer  whose  duty  is  to  give  legal  advice  to 
county  officers,  and  to  appear  in  the  County  Court  at  the 
trial  of  one  who  is  charged  with  crime  and  present  the  side 
of  the  State.  If  the  evidence  goes  to  show  that  the 
accused  is  guilty,  it  is  the  business  of  the  State's  Attorney 
to  do  all  in  his  power  to  secure  the  conviction  of  the 
offender.  A  faithful  State's  attorney  is  a  terror  to  crimi- 
nals. This  officer  is  sometimes  called  a  District  Attorney, 
or  Prosecuting  Attorney. 

(i  i)  The  School  Board.  —  When  we  were  studying  about 
schools  we  learned  that  each  school  was  governed  by  its 
Committee,  or  Board  of  School  Trustees.  Above  these 
committees,  and  in  some  degree  governing  them,  is  the 
Cotinty  School  Board.  This  body  sometimes  appointed, 
sometimes  elected,  has  the  general  management  of  the 
schools  of  the  county.  It  regulates  in  whole  or  in  part  the 
salaries  of  teachers ;  it  grants  certificates  to  those  who  are 
competent  to  teach ;  it  sometimes  makes  out  the  course  of 
studies  that  pupils  are  to  pursue  ;  it  provides  for  the  health 
and  comfort  of  teachers  and  pupils. 

(12)  The  Stiperintendeiit  of  Schools. — The  executive 
officer  of  the  school  board  is  the  County  Supermtcjident 
of  Schools,  or  Examiner.  He  sets  the  examinations  for 
teachers,  visits  the  different  schools  of  the  county,  and 
reports  their  work  to  the  school  board ;  he  grades  the 
work  of  the  schools  and  devotes  his  time  to  improving  them 
in  every  way  he  can. 


LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 


QUESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  THOUGHT 

1.  Bound  accurately  the  county  in  which  you  live.  When  was  it 
organized?  How  came  it  by  its  name?  What  is  its  area?  Its  popu- 
lation? Its  county  seat?  What  are  its  largest  villages?  Is  there  a 
city  situated  in  it? 

2.  There  are  a  few  other  county  officers  besides  those  named  in  the 
lesson.     Name  them  and  describe  the  duties  of  each. 

3.  Explain  the  difference  between  the  words  elected  and  appointed. 
Make  out  a  list  of  county  officers  who  are  elected,  and  a  list  of  those 
who  are  appointed. 

4.  A  sheriff  of  a  county  and  his  deputies  fired  upon  and  killed  twenty 
men.     Under  what  circumstances  would  you  think  the  sheriff  did  right? 

5.  What  qualifications  should  a  sheriff  possess?  A  register  of 
wills?  A  State's  attorney?  A  county  treasurer?  A  superintendent 
of  schools?  As  far  as  you  know,  are  the  officers  of  your  county  chosen 
on  account  of  \\\€\x  fitness  for  office  ? 

6.  Are  you  proud  of  your  county  ?     If  so,  for  what  reasons  ? 

7.  Which  is  likely  to  have  the  better  government,  a  New  England 
town  or  a  Southern  county? 

8.  Draw  a  map  of  your  county,  locating  its  county  seat,  and  its  chief 
towns  and  villages. 


I 


LESSON   XVII 
THE  TOWNSHIP 

"The  Western  township  has  sprung  out  of  the  school  as  the  New 
England  township  has  sprung  out  of  the  church."  —  VVoodrow  Wilson. 

The  Nature  of  Township  Government. — In  the  Middle 
Atlantic  States  and  in  those  great  Western  States  that 
have  been  settled  by  emigrants  from  the  Middle  States, 
such  as  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  the  government  that  comes 
closest  to  the  door  of  the  citizen  is  that  of  the  township. 
A  tozvnship  is  -a  small  portion  of  a  county  in  which  the 
people  exercise  some  of  those  powers  of  government  which 
are  exercised  by  the  town  in  New  England  and  the  county 
in  the  Southern  States.  Township  government,  therefore, 
lies  halfway  between  town  government  and  county  gov- 
ernment. In  New  England  the  people  of  a  town  (by 
which  we  mean  the  people  of  a  small  neighborhood)  have 
nearly  all  the  powers  of  government  in  their  hands,  and 
very  little  is  left  for  the  county  to  do.  In  a  Southern 
county  the  people  of  a  small  community  exercise  almost 
none  of  the  powers  of  government ;  everything  is  done  by 
the  county.  Now  in  a  township  a  few  of  the  powers  of 
government  are  taken  from  the  county  and  given  to  the 
people  of  a  small  neighborhood.  The  things  done  by  the 
township  government  are  usually  three  :  it  supports  pub- 
lic schools,  it  cares  for  the  roads,  and  it  helps  the  poor. 

89 


90  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

Of  course  it  collects  taxes  with  which  to  pay  for  these 
things. 

Officers  of  the  Township.  —  Township  government  is  not 
the  same  in  all  States.  In  New  York  and  Michigan 
the  township  is  almost  a  pure  democracy  ;  it  has  its  yearly 
meeting  of  all  the  citizens,  at  which  all  officers  are  elected 
and  by-laws  passed.  As  a  rule,  however,  the  township  is 
a  representative  government.  It  derives  its  powers  from 
laws  passed  by  the  Legislature  of  the  State.  The  officials 
chosen  by  the  people  for  the  government  of  a  township 
are  as  follows  : 

(i)  Supervisors  (sometimes  called  Trustees).  — These 
officers,  two  or  three  in  number,  are  elected  every  year. 
Their  duty  is  to  take  care  of  the  roads  and  bridges,  erect 
and  keep  in  repair  guide-posts  and  watering  troughs,  and 
plant  shade  trees  along  the  roadside.  They  may  build  and 
keep  in  repair  a  townhouse,  in  which  elections  may  be  held 
and  officers  of  the  town  may  transact  the  public  business. 

(2)  School  Directors.  —  Every  township  has  its  Board 
of  School  Directors,  or  School  Trustees.  These  officers, 
elected  annually  by  the  voters  of  the  town,  have  control  of 
the  public  schools  within  the  township.  Their  powers  and 
duties  have  been  stated  in  a  previous  lesson.  (Pages  30, 
31.)  In  some  States  the  Directors  of  all  the  townships 
in  a  county  meet  every  second  or  third  year  and  elect  a 
Superintendent  of  Schools  for  the  county. 

(3)  The  Tozvuship  Clerk.  —  This  officer  is  a  secretary  for 
the  supervisors.  He  keeps  the  records  and  accounts  of 
the  township.  When  stray  animals  come  into  the  town- 
ship, the  clerk  writes  out  a  description  of  them  and  assists 


LESSON   XVII  91 

in  restoring  them  to  the  rightful  owner.     Very  often  the 
clerk  is  not  an  important  officer. 

(4)  TJie  Assessors,  —  The  duty  of  these  officers  as  assess- 
ors of  taxes  has  already  been  explained.  (Page  62.)  Some- 
times the  assessors  of  the  township  act  as  registrars  of 
voters ;  that  is,  they  make  out  a  list  of  the  names  of  all 
citizens  having  the  right  to  vote  and  present  it  to  the 
judges  of  elections.  They  also  keep  a  record  of  all  births 
and  deaths  in  the  township. 

(5)  The  Tax  Collector.  —  This  officer  collects  the  road 
and  school  taxes  of  the  township  and  places  them  in  the 
hands  of  the  proper  officer,  the  supervisors  getting  the 
road  tax,  and  the  school  directors  getting  the  school  tax. 
(For  powers  and  duties  of  a  tax  collector,  see  page  63.) 

(6)  The  Ajiditors.  —  These  officers  examine  the  accounts 
of  other  officers  of  the  township  to  see    that    all  money 

•  has  been  properly  and  honestly  expended. 

(7)  The  Justice  of  the  Peace.  —  We  shall  speak  of  this 
officer  several  times  in  our  study  of  government.  It  is 
sufficient  here  to  say  that  he  holds  court  on  a  small 
scale ;  he  acts  as  a  peacemaker  between  his  neighbors 
in  their  petty  disputes  ;  he  administers  oaths  ;  he  performs 
the  marriage  ceremony  ;  he  issues  search  warrants.  He  is 
usually  appointed  by  the  Governor  of  the  State.  A  justice 
of  the  peace  may  hold  court  in  any  township  of  a  county. 

(8)  The  Constable  acts  as  a  policeman  or  peace  officer 
of  the  town.  When  a  disturbance  arises,  it  is  his  duty  to 
suppress  it.  **  The  most  common  duty  of  a  constable  is  to 
serve  writs  and  warrants  as  directed  by  a  justice  of  the 
peace.     A  writ  is  a  notice  in  a  civil  case  to  the  defend- 


92  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

ant  to  appear  before  the  justice  for  a  hearing.  It  must 
be  served  by  reading  ii  to  the  defendant,  or  by  leaving 
it  with  his  lawyer  or  some  adult  member  of  the  family. 
A  warrant  is  an  order  for  the  arrest  of  one  accused 
of  a  crime.  When  a  warrant  is  placed  in  a  constable's 
hands,  he  must  arrest  the  accused  person  and  take  him 
before  the  justice ;  if  the  accused  is  committed  to  jail 
the  constable  must  take  him  there."  ^ 

(9)  Overseers  of  the  Poor.  —  These  officers  attend  to 
the  needs  of  the  poor.  When  there  is  no  poorhouse  in 
the  county,  the  township  supports  the  poor  by  sending 
them  provisions  to  their  homes  or  paying  some  one  to 
provide  for  them.  The  overseers  may  lay  a  tax  for  the 
support  of  the  poor  of  the  township. 

(10)  Election  Officers. — These  are  judges  of  elections 
and  clerks.  Their,  duties  have  been  explained  in  Les- 
son X. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  ORIGINAL  WORK 

1.  How  many  townships  in  the  county  in  which  you  live?  Name 
them. 

2.  Bound  the  township  in  which  you  live.  What  is  its  population ? 
Draw  a  map  of  it,  locating  the  townhouse.  Locate  any  villages  that  it 
may  contain. 

3.  What  is  the  rate  of  taxation  in  your  township?  How  does  this 
compare  with  the  rate  of  adjoining  townships? 

4.  Are  the  officers  of  your  township  elected  by  ballot,  or  by  the  peo- 
ple assembled  in  town  meeting? 

5.  In  some  States  the  supervisors  of  all  the  different  townships  of  a 
county  act  as  a  board  of  county  commissioners  for  the  management  of 
county  affairs.     Is  this  the  case  in  your  State  ? 

6.  Are  women  allowed  to  vote  for  school  directors  in  your  township? 

1  Shimmell's  "Pennsylvania  Citizen,"  p.  18. 


I 


LESSON    XVIII 

VILLAGE   AND  CITY  GOVERNMENT 

"Cities  have  preserved  human  liberties."  —  F.  A/".  Thorpe. 

Importance  of  the  Subject.  —  In  this  lesson  and  in  the 
next  we  shall  speak  of  village  and  city  government.  The 
subjects  of  village  (or  borough)  government  and  city  gov- 
ernment will  be  carried  along  together,  for  villages  and 
cities  are  governed  in  very  much  the  same  manner.  A 
village  is  simply  a  small  city,  and  a  city  is  a  large  village. 
If  you  Hve  in  a  city,  it  is  of  special  importance  that  you 
learn  all  you  can  about  city  government,  for  you  will 
sooner  or  later  discover  that  much  of  the  comfort  and 
happiness  of  your  life  depends  upon  the  ways  the  affairs 
of  your  city  are  managed.  A  well-governed  city  is  one 
of  the  best  places  in  the  world  for  one  to  live  in,  while  a 
badly  governed  city  is  one  of  the  worst  places.  If  when 
you  are  grown  you  will  try  to  make  the  government  of 
your  city  better,  your  efforts  may  be  richly  rewarded,  for 
you  may  be  the  cause  of  making  the  lives  of  thousands  of 
people  happier. 

The  Beginning  of  a  City.  —  There  is  an  old  saying  that 
"  Rome  was  not  built  in  a  day."  This  is  true  of  all  cities. 
The  miles  of  streets  and  the  grand  buildings  you  see 
around  you  in   a  city  were  not  built  in  a  day.     A  city 

93 


94  LESSONS   IN  CIVICS 

begins  with  one  building,  perhaps  a  flourmill,  or  a  saw- 
mill, or  a  farmhouse,  or  a  rude  shed  for  cattle.  Let  us 
try  to  follow  in  our  imagination  the  growth  of  a  city.  Let 
us  suppose  the  first  building  is  a  sawmill  built  in  a  forest 
of  fine  timber.  Soon  after  the  mill  is  built  its  manager 
builds  a  home  for  himself  and  family.  In  a  short  time 
rows  of  houses  are  built  as  dwellings  for  the  men  who 
work  in  the  mill  and  for  those  who  cut  down  the  trees. 
These  rows  of  houses  are  the  beginnings  of  streets.  The 
families  who  dwell  in  these  houses  must  be  supplied  with 
groceries  and  other  necessaries;  hence  it  is  not  long  be- 
fore a  merchant  comes  and  erects  a  building  for  a  store. 
The  horses  that  haul  the  logs  must  be  shod  and  the 
wagons  repaired;  hence  a  blacksmith  shop  and  a  wheel- 
wright shop  must  be  built.  A  railroad  is  built  near  the 
settlement,  and  this  brings  a  station  and  a  station  master. 
The  place  must  now  have  a  name.  A  natural  name  for 
it  would  be  Millville.  Let  us  call  it  that.  Millville  is 
prosperous,  and  many  who  wash  to  join  in  its  prosperity 
are  attracted  to  it.  The  doctor  and  the  druggist,  the 
shoemaker  and  the  carpenter,  with  their  families,  come 
to  try  their  fortunes.  Soon  a  schoolhouse  is  built,  and 
a  church  and  a  house  for  the  preacher.  Another  mill  is 
built.  This  means  more  workmen  and  more  merchants. 
Now  come  the  tailor,  the  seamstress,  the  music  teacher, 
the  barber,  and  baker,  and  many  others.  Millville  has 
a  thousand  inhabitants.  But  it  has  no  separate  govern- 
ment. It  is  governed  precisely  as  the  more  thinly  settled 
region  around  it  is  governed.  It  pays  a  large  share  of  the 
taxes  of  the  county  in  which  it  is  situated,  yet  it  gets  but 


LESSON   XVIII  95 

little  return  for  the  money.  In  the  spending  of  the  taxes 
but  little  attention  is  given  to  its  needs.  It  needs  street 
lamps,  sidewalks,  sewers,  waterworks,  policemen,  firemen. 
It  also  needs  certain  powers  of  government  that  are  nec- 
essary wherever  a  large  number  of  people  live  together. 
As  it  is,  in  Millville  each  person  acts  in  reference  to  his 
neighbor's  comfort  pretty  much  as  he  pleases.  He  paves 
the  sidewalk  in  front  of  his  house,  or  does  not  pave  it,  as 
best  suits  him ;  he  helps  to  buy  oil  for  the  street  lamps, 
or  he  refuses ;  if  he  sees  fit,  he  may  throw  garbage  into 
the  street,  and  commit  other  offenses  against  the  health 
of  the  town :  there  are  no  officers  and  no  laws  to  hinder 
him.  When  there  is  a  drunken  row,  there  are  no  officers 
to  arrest  the  offenders. 

In  order  to  change  this  state  of  things,  and  make  Mill- 
ville a  safer,  cleaner,  and  more  beautiful  place  in  which 
to  live,  its  inhabitants  get  for  it  a  special  government. 
The  people  of  the  settlement  organize  as  a  lillage^  (or 
borough).  They  apply  to  the  Legislature  of  the  State  or 
to  the  judge  of  some  court,  and  get  a  charter^  which  gives 
them  the  right  to  village  officers  and  village  laws  and 
privileges.  What  these  officers  are  called  and  what  are 
their  powers  it  is  not  necessary  to  state  here.  If  you  live 
in  a  chartered  village,  get  a  copy  of  your  village  charter 
and  study  it.  You  can  learn  from  the  charter  all  you 
need  to  know  about  your  village  government.  It  is 
enough  to  say  here,  that  under  their  charter  the  citizens 
of    Millville  begin   the   business  of   governing  a  village. 

1  What  is  spoken  of  in  this  lesson  as  a  village  is  in  the  Southern  States 
usually  called  a  town. 


g6  LESSONS  IN  CIVICS 

A  police  officer  is  employed,  a  fire  engine  is  bought, 
sewers  are  laid,  streets  are  paved,  a  better  schoolhouse 
is  built.  To  pay  for  all  these  things  village  or  borough 
taxes  are  levied  upon  the  property  holders. 

Under  its  new  government  Millville  is  stirred  with  new 
life.  More  mills  are  built;  large  factories  employing 
hundreds  of  people  are  set  in  operation.  The  population 
rapidly  and  steadily  increases.  In  the  course  of  time, 
instead  of  having  a  thousand  inhabitants,  it  has  come  to 
have  many  thousands.  It  is  now  found  that  the  village 
form  of  government  does  not  suit  such  a  large  place. 
The  powers  that  are  granted  to  the  village  by  its  charter 
are  too  few  and  too  small.  Millville  has  become  a  city, 
and  it  must  have  a  government  suitable  to  a  city. 

Charters.  —  We  have  seen  that  when  a  community 
wishes  to  organize  as  a  village,  or  borough,  the  citizens 
secure  a  charter  which  gives  them  the  right  of  establish- 
ing for  themselves  a  village  government.  In  much  the 
same  way,  when  a  village  grows  to  be  a  city  in  size,  the 
citizens  secure  from  the  State  a  charter  which  gives  them 
the  right  of  forming  a  city  government.  In  some  States, 
when  a  village  reaches  a  certain  population,  the  law  gives 
it  a  charter,  and  it  becomes  a  city  simply  by  reason  of  its 
size.  It  will  be  well  for  you  at  this  point  to  get  a  clear 
notion  of  what  a  charter  is.  The  word  charter  comes 
from  the  Latin  carta,  which  means  paper.  A  charter  is 
a  written  or  printed  document,  conferring  certain  rights 
and  privileges  upon  the  persons  to  whom  it  is  granted. 
Thus  a  charter  may  be  granted  to  a  company  of  men, 
giving  them   the  privilege  of   building  and   operating  a 


LESSON   XVIII  97 

railroad;  or  one  may  be  granted,  giving  the  right  of 
founding  a  college.  Both  the  railroad  company  and  the 
college  will  conduct  their  business  under  their  charter. 
The  charter  will  tell  them  just  what  they  may  do,  and 
they  must  not  do  more  than  this.  A  city  also,  as  has 
been  said,  is  governed  under  a  charter  granted  by  the 
State.  The  parties  to  whom  the  charter  is  granted  are 
all  the  male  citizens  of  the  city  above  twenty-one  years 
of  age.  In  our  next  lesson  we  shall  see  what  kind  of 
government  a  city  usually  enjoys  under  its  charter.  If 
you  wish  to  understand  the  government  of  a.  city,  by  all 
means  get  a  copy  of  its  charter  and  read  it. 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1 .  Obtain  a  copy  of  your  village  (or  borough)  charter,  and  examine 
it  for  answer  to  the  following  questions  : 

a.  When  was  the  charter  granted? 

b.  By  what  authority  was  it  granted? 

c.  What  is  the  title  of  the  executive  officer  of  the  village? 

d.  What  is  the  governing  body  called  ?     What  are  the  powers  of  this 

body?     How  often  does  it  meet? 

e.  Are  the  officers  of  the  village  elected  or  appointed? 

f.  What  powers  of  taxation  does  the  charter  grant?    Could  the  people 

of  the  village  be  taxed  to  build  a  bridge  costing  $50,000?     One 
costing  $5000? 

g.  Who  are  entitled  to  vote  at  village  elections  ? 
h.   What  are  the  boundaries  of  the  village  ? 

2.  What  improvements  are  needed  in  your  village?     Can  they  be 
secured  under  the  terms  of  the  charter? 

3.  Have  you  seen  villages  much  more  attractive  than  the  one  in 
which  you  live  ?     What  makes  a  village  attractive  ? 

4.  Are  the  officers  of  your  village  slow  and  old-fashioned,  or  pro- 
gressive and  modern,  in  their  ideas? 

LESS.  IN  CIV.  —  7 


LESSON   XIX 

CITY  GOVERNMENT  (Continued) 

"  The  modern  city  has  come  to  be  a  huge  corporation  for  carrying  on 
a  huge  business  with  many  branches." — John  Fiske. 

The  City  Council. —  You  find  that  the  charter  of  your 
city  provides  for  a  government  with  a  division  of  powers 
such  as  was  described  in  a  previous  lesson.  It  provides 
for  a  legislative  or  lawmaking  department,  for  a  judicial 
department,  and  for  an  executive  department.  The  laws 
of  a  city  are  made  by  a  body  usually  called  the  City 
Council ;  sometimes  this  body  is  called  the  Board  of 
Aldermen.  The  city  is  divided  into  wards,  and  the  voters 
of  each  ward  elect  one  or  more  councilmen  to  represent 
them  in  the  City  Council.  If  there  are  twenty  wards  in 
the  city,  the  Council  will  consist  of  twenty,  or  forty,  or  sixty 
members,  according  as  there  are  one,  two,  or  three  mem- 
bers from  each  ward.  These  councilmen  meet  in  the  City 
Hall,  and  make  laws  for  the  government  of  the  city. 
The  laws  that  a  City  Council  makes  are  called  ordinances 
An  ordinance,  then,  is  a  city  law.  These  ordinances  of 
the  Council  relate  to  almost  everything  that  concerns  life 
in  a  city.  There  is  not  room  here  to  speak  of  all  the 
things  done  by  a  City  Council ;  a  few  of  the  things  done 
by  it,  however,  may  be  mentioned. 

When  you  are  born,  the  City  Council  requires  that  your 

98 


I 


LESSON  XIX  99 


name  be  registered  in  the  book  of  births ;  when  you  are 
old  enough  to  go  to  school,  it  provides  for  you  schools  and 
teachers  and,  sometimes,  books ;  if  your  parents  are  too 
poor  to  support  you,  it  will  help  you  with  food  and  cloth- 
ing; when  you  go  out  from  your  home,  you  walk  upon 
streets  paved  and  cleaned  and  lighted  by  the  Council ;  if 
you  should  be  attacked,  its  policemen  will  arrest  your 
assailant ;  if  you  wish  to  engage  in  some  business,  it  will 
probably  demand  of  you  a  license ;  if  you  wish  to  build  a 
home,  you  must  first  get  from  it  permission  to  build  ;  if  your 
house  takes  fire,  its  firemen  come  rushing  to  put  the  fire  out. 
The  Council  provides  for  the  removal  of  garbage  from  your 
yard ;  it  employs  men  to  inspect  the  quality  of  your  food 
and  drink ;  it  provides  parks  and  open  squares  where  you 
may  get  a  breath  of  fresh  air  and  a  glimpse  of  nature ;  it 
causes  to  be  brought  into  your  house  a  supply  of  fresh 
water,  and  it  provides  sewers  to  carry  impure  water  away 
from  your  house ;  if  in  your  old  age  you  shall  be  infirm 
and  poor,  the  Council  will  care  for  you  in  its  asylums ;  at 
last,  when  you  shall  die,  it  will  grant  a  permit  for  your 
burial,  and  the  fact  of  your  death  will  have  to  be  registered 
in  its  book  of  deaths. 

Thus  from  birth  to  death  the  acts  of  the  City  Council 
affect  your  lives.  How  important  then  it  is  that  that  body 
should  be  composed  of  honest  and  intelligent  men  !  How 
tireless  should  be  the  efforts  of  voters  to  secure  the  elec- 
tion of  such  men !  Remember  this :  If  you  succeed  in 
getting  honorable,  wide-awake  men  in  your  City  Council, 
you  will  have  a  well-governed  city.  As  far  as  you  know, 
have  you  such  men  now  in  your  City  Council  ? 


lOO  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

The  Mayor. — The  executive  power  of  the  government 
of  a  city  is  given  to  an  officer  called  the  Mayor.  The 
Mayor  is  elected  by  the  votes  of  the  people  for  a  term 
varying  from  one  to  four  years.  His  duty  is  to  carry  into 
effect  the  ordinances  of  the  City  Council.  In  most  cities 
the  Mayor  can  veto  an  ordinance  of  the  Council.  This 
means  that  he  can  forbid  the  passage  of  such  an  ordinance 
—  veto  meaning  I  forbid.  When  an  ordinance  is  vetoed,  it 
is  generally  sent  back  to  the  Council  and  voted  upon  again, 
and  if  it  is  passed  again  by  a -two-thirds  vote,  it  is  a  lawful 
ordinance  and  must  be  enforced,  notwithstanding  the 
Mayor's  objection.  Another  duty  of  the  Mayor  is  to 
appoint  many  of  the  officers  who  conduct  the  business  of 
the  city.  The  business  of  a  city  is  very  great,  much  greater 
than  that  of  any  government  that  has  been  yet  studied,  and 
it  takes  almost  an  army  of  men  to  transact  it.  The  work 
of  the  city  is  done  by  departments.  These  are :  The 
department  of  police,  the  department  of  health,  the  depart- 
ment of  taxes,  the  fire  department,  the  department  of 
streets,  the  department  of  education,  the  department  of 
elections,  and  other  departments.  In  many  cities  the 
heads  of  these  departments  are  appointed  by  the  Mayor, 
but  the  appointment  has  usually  to  be  approved  by  the 
City  Council.  Many  people  believe  that  the  Mayor  ought 
to  have  the  right  to  appoint  the  heads  of  the  departments 
without  submitting  his  choice  to  the  City  Council.  They 
think  this  would  give  the  Mayor  an  opportunity  to  choose 
better  men.  Unless  he  has  this  full  power  of  appointment, 
he  is  compelled  to  appoint  only  such  men  as  are  acceptable 
to  the  Council, 'and  when  a  bad  appointment  is  made,  the 


I 


LESSON   XIX  lOI 


Mayor  excuses  himself  by  saying  k,  'vsfa^;  the  be:$c  the 
Council  would  allow  him  to  make.  \yh^t,  J3  4^^>^.  m  .'Cach 
department  is  summed  up  in  a  written,  repidrt  arid^ls  ^ent't'o 
the  Mayor  and  City  Council.  If  you  wish  to  study  city 
government  thoroughly,  you  must  study  these  reports  of 
the  departments  as  well  as  the  city  charter. 

City  Courts.  —  If  the  City  Council  should  pass  an  ordi- 
nance forbidding  the  explosion  of  firecrackers  upon  the 
street,  it  would  be  the  duty  of  the  Mayor  to  enforce  it. 
This  he  would  do  through  the  policemen,  but  not  through 
the  police  alone.  Any  one  accused  of  violating  the  ordi- 
nance would  first  be  taken  to  a  police  court,  and  there  be 
tried  before  a  police  justice  for  the  offense.  If  the  accused 
person  was  found  guilty,  he  would  then  be  handed  over  to 
the  executive  department  for  punishment.  When  a  person 
is  accused  of  some  very  grave  offense,  as  of  arson,  or  mur- 
der, his  trial  is  conducted  in  the  Criminal  Court  of  the  city. 
Here  he  may  have  a  trial  by  jury.  What  is  meant  by  a 
"trial  by  jury"  will  be  explained  hereafter.  Besides  the 
police  court  and  criminal  court,  there  is  in  a  large  city, 
another  court,  usually  called  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas. 
This  court  tries  cases  when  the  dispute  is  concerning 
property  or  money,  or  where  a  question  of  damages  is 
involved.  These  courts  —  the  Police  Courts,  the  Criminal 
Court,  and  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas — are  the  judicial 
department  of  the  government  of  a  city. 

What  a  City  Government  should  Do.  —  We  have  described 
briefly  the  three  parts  of  a  city  government,  and  have 
spoken  of  a  few  of  the  things  a  city  government  does. 
Should  the  city  attempt  to  do  more  than  it  usually  does? 


I02  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

It  supplies  the- -people  with  water;  should  it  supply  them 
with  ^R^also  K  •  Should  it  own  and  operate  the  electric  cars  ? 
It  provides  children -with  an  education;  should  it  provide 
them  with  a  midday  lunch  also  ?  Should  it  furnish  the 
music  for  the  parks  ?  Should  it  own  and  operate  the  tele- 
phone ?  Should  it  lay  pipes  and  supply  heat  to  families '? 
These  are  a  few  of  the  questions  you  will  be  called  upon  to 
answer  when  you  become  voters.  You  cannot  answer  them 
intelligently  now ;  but  if  you  will  begin  to  study  them  now, 
when  the  time  comes  for  you  to  vote  and  act,  you  will  not 
vote  and  act  like  blind  men. 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

(For  Pupils  who  live  in  Cities) 

1 .  In  what  county  is  the  city  in  which  you  live  situated  ?  When  was 
it  organized?  What  are  its  boundaries?  What  is  its  population? 
What  are  its  industries?     Can  a  city  be  situated  in  a  town? 

2.  How  many  wards  in  your  city?  In  which  ward  do  you  live? 
Bound  the  ward  in  which  you  live.  How  many  councilmen  or  alder- 
men does  each  ward  in  your  city  send  to  the  City  Council  ?  What  are 
the  qualifications  of  a  good  councilman?  Name  the  councilmen  who 
represent  your  ward. 

3.  Let  a  pupil  obtain  a  copy  of  the  report  of  the  police  department 
and  describe  its  work.  The  report  will  show  how  many  policemen  are 
employed,  what  are  their  salaries,  the  number  of  arrests  made,  the 
causes  for  which  the  arrests  were  made,  and  other  interesting  facts. 
Reports  of  other  departments  may  be  similarly  studied. 

4.  How  does  the  rate  of  taxation  in  your  city  compare  with  that  of 
other  cities  of  equal  size? 

5.  What  is  the  amount  of  the  debt  of  your  city? 

6.  Does  your  city  own  its  gas  and  electric  light  plants  ? 

7.  Has  your  city  the  reputation  of  being  well  governed? 

8.  What  are  the  qualifications  of  a  good  Mayor? 

9.  How  may  children  help  the  cause  of  good  city  government? 


I 


LESSON   XX 

THE  STATE 

"  States  make  up  the  mass,  the  body,  the  organic  stuff  of  the  govern- 
ment of  the  country.     To  them  is  intrusted  our  daily  welfare." 

—  Woodrow  Wilson. 

The  Thirteen  Colonies.  —  In  speaking  of  the  government 
of  the  city  and  town  and  county,  we  have  now  and  then 
spoken  of  a  larger  government  that  is  above  these  and 
that  holds  these  together.  This  larger  government  is  the 
State,  and  it  is  the  State  we  are  now  going  to  study.  We 
may  best  begin  the  study  of  the  State  by  glancing  at  the 
history  of  State  government  in  the  United  States. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  the  three 
million  Englishmen  who  lived  along  the  coast  of  the 
Atlantic  occupied  thirteen  distinct  and  separate  colonies, 
—  Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire,  Rhode  Island,  Con- 
necticut, New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware, 
Maryland,  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and 
Georgia.  These  colonies  were  all  dependent  upon  the 
English  government;  their  inhabitants  were  subjects  of 
the  English  king.  But  England  was  three  thousand  miles 
away,  and  it  took,  in  those  times,  many  weeks  for  a  vessel 
to  cross  the  Atlantic.  As  a  result  of  this  wide  separation, 
England  could  not  govern  an  American  colony  in  the 
same  way  that  she  governed  one  of  her  counties  at  home. 

103 


104  LESSONS  IN  CIVICS 

A  colony  in  many  things  was  allowed  to  govern  itself.  It 
elected  its  own  lawmakers,  it  appointed  its  own  judges. 
Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut  even  elected  their  own  Gov- 
ernors, and  thus  exercised  the  three  powers  of  government, 
—  the  legislative,  the  executive,  and  the  judicial.  Aside 
from  the  tie  that  bound  it  to  England,  a  colony  had  no 
other  ties.  Each  colony  was  independent  of  all  the  other 
colonies.  Pennsylvania  had  no  more  to  do  in  the  way 
of  government  with  its  neighbor  Maryland  than  it  had 
with  Prussia.  Likewise  each  colony  had  a  different  his- 
tory. Virginia  had  grown  by  joining  to  herself,  from  time 
to  time,  the  counties  that  were  formed  as  new  tracts  of 
land  were  brought  under  cultivation.  The  county,  there- 
fore, was  of  great  importance  in  Virginia.  Massachusetts 
had  been  formed  by  joining  together  two  colonies  that  had 
consisted  each  of  a  number  of  towns.  For  this  reason  the 
town  was  the  most  important  feature  in  the  colonial  gov- 
ernment of  Massachusetts.  Maryland  had  been  developed 
in  much  the  way  a  wise  landlord  would  develop  an  im- 
mense tract  of  farming  land.  Connecticut  and  Rhode 
Island,  as  we  have  seen,  were  so  free  that  they  were  almost 
independent  republics.  Thus  it  came  about  that  at  the 
time  of  the  Revolution  the  thirteen  colonies  were  not  only 
independent  of  each  other,  but  they  differed  from  each 
other  in  the  character  of  their  governments. 

The  Thirteen  Original  States.  —  After  the  Revolutionary 
War  had  brought  victory  to  the  Americans,  each  colony 
found  itself  a  free  and  independent  nation,  —  a  State. 
Instead  of  thirteen  English  colonies,  there  were  thirteen 
American    States.      We    shall   see   hereafter,    how,   after 


I 


LESSON   XX  I  OS 


much  trouble,  the  thirteen  States  joined  and  formed  the 
United  States.  At  present  let  us  try  to  grasp  the  idea 
that  when  the  colonies  had  gained  their  freedom,  each 
colony  was  then  free  to  govern  itself.  Indeed,  each  colony 
was  compelled  to  govern  itself,  for  there  was  no  longer 
any  king  or  parliament  for  it  to  look  up  to.  As  quickly 
as  possible  after  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  the 
people  of  each  colony  took  up  the  difficult  task  of  self- 
government.  The  first  thing  to  be  done  was  to  change 
the  colonial  government  into  a  State  government.  This 
was  done  by  representatives  of  the  people  of  a  State 
coming  together  in  convention  and  agreeing  on  a  plan 
as  to  just  how  the  State  was  to  be  governed.  This  plan 
was  written  out  and  submitted  to  the  people  for  ratification, 
and  was  called  the  Constitution  of  the  State.  Each  colony 
made  for  itself  a  constitution  that  suited  best  its  own 
wishes  and  its  own  needs.  The  constitution  of  Virginia 
differed  from  that  of  Massachusetts,  because  the  needs 
of  Virginia  were  different  from  those  of  Massachusetts. 
You  must  not  suppose  that  the  new  State  government  that 
was  formed  differed  very  much  from  the  old  colonial  gov- 
ernment. The  people  of  a  colony,  after  many  years  of 
hard  experience,  had  built  up  the  kind  of  government  they 
liked  best,  and  they  had  become  used  to  obeying  certain 
laws  and  observing  certain  customs.  Now  it  is  not  pos- 
sible —  and  you  should  think  of  this  when  you  hear  new 
schemes  of  government  proposed  —  it  is  not  possible  for 
a  people  suddenly  to  make  a  complete  change  in  their 
laws,  customs,  and  habits.  So  the  new  State  governments 
were  necessarily  very  much  like  the  old  colonial  govern- 


I06  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

ments.  The  colonies  of  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island 
did  not  form  a  new  government  at  all.  The  old  charters 
granted  to  them  by  England  were  taken  as  Constitutions 
for  these  two  States. 

The  State  governments  differed  from  each  other  in 
many  respects,  yet  they  were  alike  in  many  respects. 
Thus  every  State  elected  a  Governor  for  a  short  term  of 
years.  I  suppose  if  a  State  had  so  desired,  it  could  have 
chosen  some  one  as  its  king.  But  none  of  them  did  this. 
They  had  had  enough  of  kings.  Again,  in  every  State 
the  powers  of  government  were  divided  into  the  legislative, 
executive,  and  judicial  departments.  The  common  law  of 
England  was  also  declared  in  all  the  States  to  be  the  law 
under  the  new  order  of  things.  It  was  natural  that  the 
governments  of  the  different  States  should  bear  a  strong 
resemblance  to  each  other.  The  people  of  the  colonies, 
from  New  Hampshire  to  Georgia,  were  nearly  all  the  same 
in  blood  and  speech ;  they  were  nearly  all  Englishmen, 
and  had  English  notions  of  government  and  law. 

The  Admitted  States.  — In  1 788-1 790  the  thirteen  origi- 
nal States  united  under  the  Constitution.  It  was  not  long 
before  other  communities  outside  of  the  present  bounda- 
ries of  the  original  States  wished  to  join  the  Union.  Each 
was  allowed  to  do  this  as  soon  as  it  had  grown  large 
enough  in  population  and  after  it  had  adopted  for  itself 
a  constitution  that  was  acceptable  to  Congress.  When 
these  requirements  were  fulfilled,  the  new  community  was 
admitted  to  the  Union  as  a  State.  Vermont  was  the  first 
new  State  admitted.  This  was  in  1791.  The  next  year 
Kentucky  was  admitted;    and  so  on  from  time  to  time 


I 


LESSON   XX  107 


until  thirty-two  new  States  have  been  admitted  into  the 
Union,  making  forty-five  in  all.  The  last  to  be  admitted 
was  Utah  (1896). 

The  governments  of  the  admitted  States  were  modeled 
after  those  of  the  older  States. 

It  is  plain  that  the  younger  States  have  had  an  advan- 
tage over  the  older  ones  in  the  matter  of  making  laws  for 
themselves,  for  they  have  been  able  to  select  those  laws 
of  the  older  States  that  experience  has  shown  to  be  good, 
and  they  have  been  able  to  avoid  making  those  laws  that 
experience  has  shown  to  be  bad. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  WORK 

1.  Bound  the  State  4n  which  you  live.  Is  it  one  of  the  original 
States?     If  it  is  not,  when  was  it  admitted  into  the  Union? 

2.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  name  of  your  State  ?  What  is  its  nick- 
name? What  is  the  origin  of  its  nickname?  What  is  the  population 
of  your  State  ? 

3.  How  many  States  have  a  greater  population  than  your  State? 
What  is  the  area  of  your  State?  How  many  States  have  a  greater  area? 
How  many  States  as  large  as  the  smallest  State  in  the  Union  could  be 
made  out  of  the  largest  State  in  the  Union? 

4.  If  you  live  in  one  of  the  admitted  States,  learn  from  what  State 
the  first  settlers  in  your  State  came  and  compare  your  State  with  the 
parent  State,  in  reference  to  (a)  government,  (I?)  religion,  (c)  occupation, 
(d)  political  parties. 

5.  Name  the  territories.  Which  of  these  do  you  think  will  become 
a  State  first  ? 


LESSON   XXI 

THE  STATE   CONSTITUTION 

"  In  the  American  State  the  legislature  is  not  supreme,  but  has  limits 
to  its  authority  prescribed  by  a  written  document  known  as  the  Consti- 
tution."— Joh7i  Fiske. 

Meaning  of  the  Word  *^  Constitution." — You  have  met 
with  the  word  Constitution  several  times  already,  and, 
since  you  will  meet  with  it  many  times  hereafter,  you 
ought  to  try  to  understand  clearly  what  it  means.  The 
word  comes  from  constituo^  a  Latin  word  which  means 
fix,  establish,  settle.  The  constitution  of  a  debating  society 
is  a  set  of  fixed  rules  by  which  the  society  is  to  be  per- 
manently governed,  and  from  which  it  cannot  rightfully 
depart.  The  constitution  of  a  State  is  a  document  con- 
taining those  fixed  principles  and  rules  by  which  a  State 
must  be  governed,  and  from  which  neither  the  Governor, 
the  lawmaker,  nor  the  judge  may  depart.  The  consti- 
tution may  be  called  the  fundamental  law  of  the  State, 
because  it  is  the  foundation  upon  which  all  laws  are  built, 
just  as  the  foundation  of  a  house  is  the  part  upon  which 
all  the  other  parts  rest.  Think  of  a  constitution  as  the 
foundation  plan  upon  which  a  system  of  laws  may  be  built. 

Description  of  a  State  Constitution.  —  I  have  before  me 
the  constitution  of  the  State  in  which  I  live,  and  I  will 
attempt  to  describe  it  to  you  very  briefly :  It  begins  with 

io8 


LESSON  XXI  109 

a  Declaration  of  Rights.  It  declares  that  a  people  have 
the  right  to  govern  themselves ;  that  all  citizens  have  a 
right  to  a  trial  by  jury;  that  the  Governor,  the  judges, 
and  the  lawmakers  are  responsible  to  the  people  for  their 
actions ;  that  all  male  adult  citizens  have  the  right  to 
vote;  that  the  legislative,  executive,  and  judicial  powers 
of  government  shall  be  separate;  that  there  shall  be 
freedom  of  speech  and  debate ;  that  no  one  shall  be 
compelled  to  give  evidence  against  himself  in  a  court  of 
law ;  that  the  press  shall  be  free ;  that  no  title  of  nobility 
shall  be  granted ;  that  a  man's  religion  shall  not  be  made 
a  test  for  holding  office;  that  the  people  have  in  them- 
selves the  right  to  form  a  new  government.  After  declar- 
ing these  and  some  other  rights,  the  constitution  takes  up 
the  executive  department  of  government.  It  states  who 
may  be  elected  Governor,  how  and  when  he  may  be 
elected,  how  long  he  shall  serve,  and  what  are  his  powers 
and  duties.  The  powers  and  duties  of  other  executive 
officers  are  also  defined.  After  the  executive  we  come 
to  the  legislative  department.  We  are  told  what  shall 
be  the  name  of  the  Legislature,  how  it  shall  be  composed, 
who  may  be  its  members,  where  it  shall  meet,  how  a  law 
shall  be  passed,  and,  in  a  general  way,  what  kind  of  laws 
shall  be  passed,  and  what  kind  may  not  be  passed.  (Thus 
it  states  that  the  Legislature  shall  pass  no  law  suspending 
the  writ  of  habeas  corpus.  See  p.  42.)  After  the  legisla- 
tive comes  the  judicial  department.  The  qualifications, 
duties,  and  powers  of  judges  are  explained,  and  the 
boundaries  of  the  different  judicial  circuits  are  defined. 
Last   of   all   come   the   miscellaneous    provisions.     ThesQ 


no  LESSONS   IN  CIVICS 

relate  to  education,  corporations,  public  debts,  taxation, 
and  amendments.  The  constitution  altogether  would 
make  about  forty  pages  of  this  book.  There  are  forty- 
five  States,  and  each  State  has  its  own  constitution  and 
no  two  constitutions  are  alike,  but  all  the  State  constitu- 
tions have  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  one  that  has  been 
described. 

How  the  Constitution  of  a  State  is  Made. — The  consti- 
tution of  a  State  is  made  by  a  body  of  men  who  are 
chosen  to  make  a  constitution  and  to  do  nothing  else. 
This  body  is  called  the  Constitutional  Convention.  This 
Convention  is  composed  of  delegates  elected  by  the  people 
of  the  counties  and  cities  of  the  State.  In  this  Constitu- 
tional Convention  the  needs  and  wishes  of  the  people  of 
the  State  are  discussed,  and  a  constitution  is  carefully 
drawn  up.  After  a  constitution  is  agreed  upon  by  the 
Convention,  it  is  submitted  to  the  people  to  be  voted 
upon.  If  a  majority  of  the  popular  vote  is  cast  for  it, 
it  stands  as  the  constitution  —  the  fixed  plan  of  govern- 
ment. If  it  does  not  receive  a  majority  of  the  votes,  no 
further  attention  is  paid  to  it ;  the  work  of  the  Convention 
was  in  vain.  If  the  people  reject  a  proposed  constitution, 
they  must  live  under  the  old  constitution  until  another 
Convention  is  called,  and  a  constitution  is  framed  that 
will  suit  them.  In  recent  years  there  have  been  Constitu- 
tional Conventions  that  have  not  submitted  the  constitu- 
tion to  the  people  to  be  voted  upon.  In  nearly  all  the 
States,  however,  a  constitution  must  be  voted  upon  and 
adopted  by  the  people  before  it  is  the  law.  Is  it  best  to 
let  the  people  vote  upon  the  constitution  of  their  State  ? 


I 


LESSON  XXI  III 


How  a  Constitution  is  Changed.  —  We  have  called  the 
constitution  the  fixed,  unchanging  plan  of  government. 
But  it  would  not  do  for  a  constitution  to  remain  unchanged 
and  unchangeable  forever.  It  sometimes  happens  that  a 
plan  is  good  at  one  time  and  yet  bad  at  another  time ;  and 
a  constitution  that  might  have  been  good  and  wise  in  the 
year  1800,  may,  by  the  year  1900,  have  become  foolish  or 
harmful.  If,  then,  there  is  something  in  a  constitution  that 
ought  not  to  be  there,  or  if  something  ought  to  be  there  that 
is  not  there,  how  shall  a  change  be  made  ?  The  answer 
is:  By  amendment ;  the  constitution  is  mended  ^htvQ  it  is 
weak.  This  is  done  as  follows :  The  Legislature  of  the 
State  passes  the  amendment,  which  it  thinks  ought  to  be 
inserted  in  the  constitution,  and  then  submits  the  amend- 
ment to  the  people  to  be  voted  upon,  for  or  against.  If 
it  gets  the  requisite  number  of  the  votes  of  the  electors, 
the  amendment  becomes  a  part  of  the  constitution.  In 
some  States,  it  is  difficult  to  secure  an  amendment  to  the 
constitution  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  getting  it 
passed  by  the  Legislature.  Thus,  in  California  before 
an  amendment  can  be  submitted  to  the  people  it  must 
first  pass  in  the  Legislature  by  a  vote  of  two  thirds  of  all 
the  members.  In  Georgia  an  amendment  must  pass  in 
two  successive  legislatures,  both  times  by  a  two-thirds 
vote,  before  it  can  be  submitted  to  the  people.  Is  it  wise 
to  make  it  difficult  to  have  the  constitution  changed  .^ 

When  an  entirely  new  constitution  is  desired,  a  new 
Constitutional  Convention  must  be  called.  This  is  usu- 
ally done  as  follows :  The  Legislature  submits  to  the 
people  the  question,  whether  they  wish  a  new  Constitu- 


112  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

tional  Convention  or  not.  If  the  people  vote  yes^  the 
Legislature  provides  for  the  election  of  the  delegates  to 
the  Convention.  The  election  is  then  held  and  the  elected 
delegates  meet  in  convention,  make  a  new  constitution, 
and  submit  it  to  the  people  to  be  voted  upon,  as  has  been 
explained.  You  see  that  a  constitution  is  adopted  directly 
by  the  votes  of  the  people.  It  is  not  adopted  by  the 
representatives  of  the  people :  it  is  very  nearly  the  work 
of  a  pure  democracy. 

**  Constitutional ''  and  **  Unconstitutional."  —  You  will 
often  meet  with  these  words  in  your  reading.  What  do 
they  mean  "^  Constitutional  means  in  accordance  with  the 
constitution.  If  an  act  of  an  individual,  or  of  an  officer 
of  government,  or  a  law  of  the  Legislature,  does  not  con- 
flict with  anything  that  is  found  in  the  constitution,  that 
act  or  law  is  constitutional.  "Unconstitutional"  means, 
of  course,  not  constitutional.  This  seems  at  first  sight 
very  easy  and  hardly  worth  mentioning,  but  in  reality  it 
is  sometimes  very  difficult  to  tell  whether  an  act  or  a  law 
is  constitutional  or  unconstitutional.  Whether  it  is  or  not, 
must  be  decided  by  the  judges  of  the  State. 

QUESTIONS   AND  SUGGESTIONS 

I .  Get  a  copy  of  the  constitution  of  your  State,  and  examine  it  for 
answers  to  the  following  questions : 

(a)   When  was  the  constitution  adopted  by  the  people  ? 
(h)    About  how  many  pages  of  this  book  would  it  make? 

(c)  What  are  the  principal  rights  declared? 

(d )  Are  there  any  amendments  to  the  constitution  as  it  now  stands  ? 

If  so,  when  and  why  were  they  adopted? 
(i)   What  provision  of  the  constitution  seems  to  be  the  most  important? 


LESSON   XXI  113 

(/)    Do  you  find  anything  in  the  constitution  that  you  would  like,  to 

see  changed? 
(g)    How  would  you  proceed  to  get  the  constitution  changed? 

2.  Elect  a  committee  consisting  of  classmates  to  draw  up  a  constitu- 
tion for  the  government  of  a  debating  society.  Provide  in  the  consti- 
tution for  election  of  officers,  time  and  place  of  holding  meetings, 
qualifications  for  membership,  dues,  fines,  etc.  The  committee  cannot 
do  good  work  unless  it  takes  as  a  model  some  suitable  constitution 
already  drawn  up.  The  constitution  drawn  up  should  be  submitted  to 
the  whole  class  for  approval. 

3.  Suppose  you  think  a  certain  law  is  unconstitutional,  have  you  a 
right  to  disobey  it? 

4.  How  many  constitutions  has  your  State  had  during  its  entire 
history  ? 

5.  Would  it  be  wise  for  Maine  and  Louisiana  to  exchange  constitu- 
tions? 

LESS.  IN  CIV.  —  8 


LESSON   XXII 

THE  STATE   LEGISLATURE 

"While  acting  as  the  representative  of  the  people  I  shall  be  governed 
by  their  will  on  all  subjects  upon  which  I  have  the  means  of  knowing 
what  their  will  is,  and  upon  all  others  I  shall  do  what  my  own  judgment 
teaches  me  will  best  advance  their  interests."  —  Abraham  Lincoln. 

When  and  where  the  State  Legislature  Meets.  —  Each 
State  has  its  capital^  or  the  city  in  which  the  business  of 
the  State  government  is  transacted.  If  you  have  ever  been 
in  the  capital  of  your  State,  you  have  doubtless  visited  the 
capitoly  or  Statehoitse,  This  is  usually  a  handsome  build- 
ing, containing  many  halls,  galleries,  and  ofhces.  In  this 
building  is  done  the  most  important  work  of  the  State  gov- 
ernment. Here  the  Governor  of  the  State  and  his  assist- 
ants have  their  offices ;  here  the  highest  judges  of  the 
State  hold  their  courts ;  here  every  two  years  the  Legis- 
lature of  the  State  meets  to  make  laws.  If  your  visit  to 
the  Statehouse  is  made  upon  the  day  a  newly  elected  Leg- 
islature meets  for  the  first  time,  you  can  learn  much  about 
the  making  of  laws. 

The  Two  Branches  of  the  Legislature.  —  Let  us  suppose 
that  you  are  in  the  Statehouse  on  the  morning  a  Legis- 
lature assembles  for  the  first  time.  When  the  hour  for 
meeting  comes,  the  lawmakers,  who  have  been  moving 
busily  about  in  the  corridors,  talking  with  each  other,  divide 

114 


LESSON   XXII  115 

into  two  bodies.  The  smaller  number  meet  in  a  room  at 
one  end  of  the  Statehouse.  The  men  who  meet  in  this 
room  are  somewhat  advanced  in  years ;  they  move  about 
in  a  quiet  and  dignified  manner.  Some  of  them  seem  to 
be  familiar  with  the  place  and  to  know  how  to  begin  with 
the  business.  These  men  are  senators,  this  is  the  Senate 
chamber,  and  this  branch  of  the  Legislature  is  the  Senate. 

The  larger  number  of  lawmakers  assemble  in  a  large 
hall  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  Statehouse.  This  body,  as 
we  look  upon  it  from  a  gallery,  differs  much  in  appearance 
from  the  Senate.  The  men  are  of  all  ages,  from  the  young 
man  of  two  and  twenty  to  the  gray-haired  man  of  seventy. 
Some  of  them  are  dignified  and  of  pleasing  and  intelligent 
appearance ;  others  appear  to  be  very  ordinary  men.  A 
few  of  them  are  self-possessed,  but  most  of  them  act  as  if 
they  were  in  a  strange  place.  These  men  are  represefita- 
tiveSy  and  this  is  the  Honse  of  Representatives,  The  Legis- 
lature of  a  State,  therefore,  is  divided  into  two  branches,  — 
an  upper  house,  or  Senate,  and  a  lower  house,  or  House  of 
Representatives.  In  some  States  the  lower  house  is  called 
the  Assembly,  in  others  it  is  called  the  House  of  Dele- 
gates. In  North  Carolina  it  is  called  the  House  of 
Commons. 

Election  of  Members  of  the  Legislature.  —  Both  the 
lower  house  and  the  Senate  are  representative  bodies,  that 
is,  the  members  of  both  are  sent  to  the  capital  to  act  in  the 
place  of  the  people.  The  counties  (or  towns)  and  cities 
are  represented  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  according 
to  population.  A  county  (or  town),  if  it  is  small,  may  have 
but  one  representative,  while  a  county  with  a  large  popu- 


Il6  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

lation  may  have  two,  or  three,  or  four.  In  the  same  way 
a  city  is  represented  by  one,  two,  or  more  representatives, 
according  as  it  is  small  or  large.  How  is  the  number  of 
representatives  for  a  county,  or  town,  or  city  determined.'' 
Every  ten  years  a  census  of  the  people  is  taken,  and  from 
this  census  it  can  be  determined  how  many  representatives 
a  county  or  city  is  entitled  to.  If  it  is  the  law  that  there 
should  be  at  least  one  representative  for  10,000  people, 
then  a  county  with  a  population  of  10,000  or  under  would 
be  entitled  to  one  representative ;  a  county  with  a  popula- 
tion of  more  than  10,000  and  less  than  20,000  would  get 
two  representatives ;  a  city  of  50,000  people,  according  to 
this  rule,  would  get  five  representatives.  But  a  lawmaking 
body  should  not  be  so  large  as  to  make  it  difficult  to  trans- 
act business  in  a  quiet  and  deliberate  manner.  A  State 
with  1,000,000  of  inhabitants,  represented  by  one  repre- 
sentative for  every  10,000  people,  would  have  a  House  of 
Representatives  consisting  of  100  members.  If  the  popu- 
lation of  the  State  increases  to  2,000,000,  how  would  the 
law  have  to  be  changed  so  that  the  number  of  representa- 
tives would  still  be  loo.'^ 

A  senator  represents  a  larger  number  of  people  than  is 
represented  by  a  member  of  the  House.  The  State  is 
divided  into  senatorial  districts,  and  from  each  of  these  dis- 
tricts one  senator  is  elected.  A  senatorial  district  may  in- 
clude several  counties,  or  several  senators  may  represent, 
one  county.  It  is  generally  provided  by  law  that  senators 
shall  be  older  than  representatives,  and  for  this  reason 
they  are  supposed  to  be  wiser  than  members  of  the  lower 
house.     They  are  elected  to  serve  for  longer  terms  than 


.  LESSON   XXII  117 

representatives,  and  they  usually  are  men  who  have  had 
more  experience  in  matters  of  government. 

Organization.  —  After  a  roll  call  of  the  members,  the 
first  thing  that  is  done  in  the  newly  elected  House  of 
Representatives  is  to  choose  a  presiding  officer,  called  a 
Speaker.  The  Speaker  takes  the  chair,  and  then  the 
House  proceeds  to  .elect  some  one  who  is  not  a  member, 
as  its  Clerk  or  Secretary.  The  duty  of  this  official  is  to 
write  out  in  a  large  book,  called  thQ  Jotirnal,  a  full  account 
of  everything  that  takes  place  in  the  House.  The  House 
next  elects  a  Sergeant-at-Aiins,  an  officer  whose  duty  it 
is  to  keep  order  in  the  House,  and  to  bring  absent  mem- 
bers to  their  seats  when  their  presence  is  needed  to  make 
a  quorum. 

When  the  Clerk  and  Sergeant-at-Arms,  and  such  minor 
officials  as  messengers  and  doorkeepers,  are  chosen  by 
the  vote  of  the  House,  the  Speaker  announces  the  Co^n- 
mi t tees  of  the  House. 

A  Committee  of  the  House  consists  of  a  small  number 
of  members  —  three,  or  five,  or  seven,  or  nine  —  who  have 
charge  of  some  particular  branch  of  legislative  business. 
Thus  if  the  Speaker  appoints  five  members  as  the  Com- 
mittee on  Education,  all  matters  coming  up  in  the  House 
relating  to  education  are  first  referred  to  this  committee. 
There  are  a  great  many  committees.  The  most  important 
are  those  on  Finance,  Corporations,  the  Judiciary,  Elec- 
tions, Appropriations,  Education,  Labor,  Manufactures, 
Agriculture,  Public  Buildings. 

If  we  had  remained  in  the  Senate  during  its  opening 
hour,  we  should  have  seen  almost  the  same  things  that  we 


Il8  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

saw  in  the  House.  There  might  have  been  some  differ- 
ence in  the  matter  of  the  presiding  officer.  Some  States 
have  a  Lieutenant  GovernoTy  and  when  this  is  the  case,  this 
officer,  by  virtue  of  his  office,  acts  as  Chairman  or  Presi- 
dent of  the  Senate.  Yet  even  where  there  is  a  Lieutenant 
Governor,  the  Senate  elects  a  President  pro  tempore^  who 
serves  in  the  absence  of  that  officer.  So  we  may  say  that 
the  Senate  is  organized  in  the  same  way  that  we  saw  the 
House  of  Representatives  organized.  It  elects  its  Clerk, 
its  Sergeant-at-Arms,  its  messengers  and  doorkeepers,  and 
the  President  announces  just  such  committees  as  are  an- 
nounced in  the  House.  After  the  two  houses  have  been 
organized  as  described,  the  Legislature  is  ready  to  begin 
its  work,  —  to  make  laws  for  the  welfare  of  the.  people. 

QUESTIONS   FOR   ORIGINAL  WORK 

(Answers  to  a  number  of  these  questions  can  be  found  in  the  consti- 
tution of  the  State.) 

1.  Is  the  capital  of  your  State  situated  in  the  most  suitable  place? 
Are  the  citizens  of  the  State  proud  of  their  Statehouse? 

2.  What  is  the  name  of  the  lower  house  of  the  Legislature  of  your 
State?  What  is  the  name  of  the  Legislature  taken  as  a  whole?  When 
does  the  Legislature  meet?     How  long  may  it  continue  in  session? 

3.  What  are  the  qualifications  for  a  senator  in  your  State?  For  a 
representative  ?  Do  you  know  the  name  of  the  senator  that  represents 
you  in  the  Senate  ? 

4.  What  is  the  method  of  representation  in  your  State?  Is  it  gen- 
erally regarded  as  a  just  method? 

5.  Is  there  a  Lieutenant  Governor  in  your  State? 

6.  What  is  the  compensation  of  a  senator?  Of  a  representative? 
Lawmakers  in  England  receive  no  pay  for  their  services.  Is  that  a 
good  rule? 

7.  What  is  "mileage"?  What  is  meant  by  "a  quorum"?  What 
is  regarded  as  a  quorum  in  the  Legislature  of  your  State  ? 


LESSON   XXIII 

THE  STATE  LEGISLATURE   (Continued) 

•*The  convention,  the  campaign,  the  election,  the  division  of  the 
powers  of  government,  the  exercise  of  political  rights,  are  merely  for 
the  purpose  of  making  a  law."  —  F,  N.  Thorpe. 

How  a  Law  is  Made.  —  Let  us  now  see  how   a   law   is 

passed  in  the  Legislature.  We  will  suppose  that  many 
people  in  the  State  wish  a  law  to  be  passed,  compelling 
railroad  companies  to  run  their  tracks  wherever  there  is  a 
road  or  street-crossing,  either  above  or  below  the  road  or 
street,  so  that  the  lives  of  pedestrians  or  those  riding  in 
vehicles  may  not  be  endangered.  How  will  they  get  the 
law  passed }  They  will  get  one  of  their  representatives  in 
the  Legislature  to  take  up  their  cause  for  them.  A  mem- 
ber, let  us  say,  of  the  House,  will  prepare  a  bill,  that  is, 
the  draft  of  a  law,  which  compels  railroads  to  lay  their 
tracks  either  above  or  below  grade  at  all  public  crossings. 
The  member  first  gives  notice  to  the  Speaker  that  at  a 
convenient  time  he  will  introduce  into  the  House  a  bill 
"  To  compel  railroad  companies  to  lay  their  tracks  either 
above  or  below  grade  at  all  public  crossings."  When  the 
day  arrives  for  introducing  the  bill,  the  member  gives  it 
to  the  Clerk  of  the  House  to  read.  This  is  called  \\^^  first 
reading.  The  Speaker  immediately  after  it  is  read  refers 
the  bill  to  its  proper  committee,  which,  in  this  case,  is  the 

119 


120  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

Committee  on  Railroads.  In  a  few  days  the  Committee 
in  its  private  room  will  give  attention  to  the  bill.  Friends 
of  the  bill  will  appear  before  the  Committee  and  speak  in 
its  favor ;  opponents  of  it  will  also  be  present  to  speak 
against  it.  After  hearing  both  sides  of  the  question,  the 
Committee  makes  its  report  to  the  House.  If  the  Com- 
mittee thinks  there  is  no  reason  for  such  a  law,  it  reports 
"  unfavorably,"  and  there  the  matter  will  probably  end  : 
the  bill  is  ''killed  in  Committee."  But  if  the  Committee 
thinks  well  of  the  bill,  it  reports  **  favorably."  This 
means  that  in  the  opinion  of  the  Committee  the  bill  ought 
to  become  a  law.  The  title  of  the  bill  is  again  read  in  the 
House,  and  if  no  objection  is  raised,  it  is  allowed  to  pass 
upon  its  second  reading.  In  its  regular  order  the  Bill  is 
taken  up  for  its  third  and  last  reading.  It  is  now  read  in 
full  by  the  Clerk,  and  a  discussion  of  it  begins.  Speeches 
are  made  in  favor  of  it,  and  those  who  are  opposed  to  it, 
speak  against  it.  If  a  member  wishes  to  change  a  par- 
ticular part  of  the  bill,  he  offers  an  amendment  to  it.  The 
amendment  is  voted  upon,  and  if  it  receives  a  majority  of 
the  votes,  the  amendment  becomes  a  part  of  the  bill ;  if 
the  amendment  is  voted  down,  the  bill  remains  as  it  was 
before.  After  a  full  discussion  and  debate,  the  measure 
comes  to  a  final  vote.  The  Speaker  asks  the  House, 
''Shall  the  bill  pass.?"  The  House  answers  the  question 
by  taking  a  vote.  If  a  majority  vote  aye  (yes),  the  bill 
passes ;  if  a  majority  vote  no,  or  if  the  noes  equal  the  ayes, 
the  bill  is  lost ;  it  is  "  killed  in  the  House."  Let  us  sup- 
pose it  passes  in  the  House.  It  is  then  taken  by  the  mes- 
senger of  the  House  to  the  Senate.     Here  it  has  the  same 


I 


LESSON   XXIII  12  V 


history  that  it  had  in  the  House.  It  is  referred  by  the 
President  of  the  Senate  to  its  proper  committee,  is  read 
three  times  upon  three  different  days,  is  fully  discussed 
upon  its  last  reading,  is  possibly  amended,  and  is  then 
voted  upon.  If  it  passes  in  the  Senate  with  amendments, 
it  must  then  go  back  to  the  House  in  order  that  a  vote 
may  be  taken  upon  it  as  amended  by  the  Senate.  If  it 
passes  in  the  House  with  the  amendment,  the  bill  has 
passed,  and,  as  far  as  the  Legislature  is  concerned,  it  is  a 
law. 

In  nearly  all  the  States,  however,  a  bill  that  has  passed 
both  houses  of  the  Legislature  is  not  yet  a  law,  but  must 
be  sent  to  the  Governor  of  the  State  for  his  approval.  If 
the  Governor  signs  it,  or  if  he  takes  no  action  upon  it 
within  a  fixed  number  of  days,  it  becomes  a  law.  The 
Governor  may,  however,  veto  the  bill,  that  is,  he  may  send 
it  back  with  his  objections  stated  in  writing  to  that  branch 
of  the  Legislature  that  sent  it  to  him.  The  Legislature 
may  then  take  another  vote  upon  the  bill,  and  if  it  again 
passes  both  Houses,  it  becomes  a  law  in  spite  of  the  Gov- 
ernor's veto.  But  in  order  to  pass  it  over  the  Governor's 
veto,  it  must,  as  a  rule,  get  more  than  a  bare  majority  of 
votes.  In  some  States  it  must  receive  the  votes  of  two 
thirds  of  the  members  present ;  in  others  it  must  receive  a 
majority  of  the  votes  of  all  the  members  elected. 

After  a  bill  has  gone  through  all  the  stages  mentioned, 
after  it  has  been  passed  by  both  Houses  and  has  been 
signed  by  the  Governor,  it  is  assumed  to  be  a  law,  and  an 
attempt  is  made  to  enforce  it.  It  is  liable,  however,  to  be 
declared  to  be  unconstitutional.     If,  when  the  bill  relating 


122  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

to  railroad  crossings  has  been  passed,  the  railroad  officials 
should  object  to  laying  their  tracks  as  ordered,  on  the 
ground  that  the  Legislature  had  no  right  to  pass  such  a 
law,  and  should  take  the  matter  into  court  and  the  judge 
should  decide  that  the  Legislature  had  no  such  right 
under  the  constitution,  then  the  law  would  be  null  and 
void,  and  the  railroad  companies  would  not  be  compelled 
to  obey  it. 

What  the  Legislature  of  a  State  may  Do.  —  The  best 
way  to  learn  what  the  Legislature  of  a  State  may  do,  is  to 
learn  first  what  it  may  not  do.  First,  it  may  not  pass  a 
law  that  is  contrary  to  the  constitution  of  the  State.  This 
point  was  illustrated  in  the  last  paragraph.  Second,  it 
may  not  pass  a  law  contrary  to  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States.  When  we  come  to  study  this  Constitution, 
we  shall  learn  that  there  are  certain  powers  of  government 
granted  to  Congress,  the  body  that  makes  laws  for  the 
United  States.  For  instance,  one  of  the  powers  granted 
to  Congress  is  to  manage  the  post  offices  of  the  country. 
A  State  Legislature,  therefore,  has  no  right  to  make  laws 
relating  to  post  offices.  Again,  in  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States,  certain  things  are  mentioned  which  a  State 
must  not  do.  For  example,  a  State  must  not  coin  money. 
Hence,  a  State  Legislature  has  no  right  to  establish  a 
mint.  Members  of  a  State  Legislature,  then,  should  keep 
these  two  things  in  mind :  First,  they  may  not  make  laws 
contrary  to  the  constitution  of  their  own  State ;  and, 
second,  they  may  not  make  laws  contrary  to  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States.  So  long  as  it  does  not  violate 
either  of  these  two  rules,  a  State  Legislature  is  free  to 


LESSON  XXIII  123 

pass  almost  any  law  it  pleases.  It  would  take  too  long  to 
name  all  the  laws  that  can  be  passed,  and  that  are  passed, 
in  the  Legislature  of  a  State.  Sometimes  at  one  session 
more  than  a  thousand  laws  are  passed.  The  following  is 
a  list  of  a  few  of  the  things  done  by  a  State  Legislature : 

(i)  It  grants  charters  for  the  government  of  cities, 
boroughs,  and  villages  ;  it  also  grants  charters  to  railroads, 
banks,  colleges,  and  to  many  other  institutions,  public  and 
private. 

(2)  It  makes  laws  regulating  taxation,  licenses,  fees. 

(3)  It  defines  the  boundaries  of  counties  and  towns. 

(4)  It  makes  laws  for  the  punishment  of  crime,  such 
as  treason,  murder,  arson,  theft,  bribery,  forgery,  fraud, 
perjury. 

(5)  It  makes  laws  concerning  properfy,  such  as  relate 
to  the  sale  of  lands,  the  giving  of  mortgages,  the  granting 
of  deeds,  the  making  of  wills,  the  settlement  of  the  estates 
of  bankrupts,  the  management  of  the  estates  of  the  dead. 

(6)  It  makes  laws  concerning  education,  charity,  health, 
marriage,  divorce. 

(7)  It  makes  laws  concerning  the  qualifications  of 
voters  and  the  time  and  manner  of  holding  elections. 

(8)  It  makes  laws  governing  railroads,  steamboats,  ca- 
nals, telegraph  companies,  telephone  companies. 

(9)  It  makes  laws  regulating  hunting,  fishing,  mining, 
manufacturing,  trading. 

It  is  plain  that  most  of  the  laws  that  regulate  us  in  our 
daily  conduct,  and  in  our  daily  pursuits,  are  made  by  rfie 
State. 


124  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

Honest  Men  for  the  Legislature.  —  Since  the  duties  of 
the  State  lawmaker  are  so  many  and  his  powers  are  so 
great,  citizens  should  make  every  effort  to  elect  only 
honest  and  intelligent  men  to  the  Legislature.  There  is 
good  reason  to  believe  that  in  some  States  bad  men  get 
laws  passed  for  their  own  private  benefit.  They  do  this 
through  bribery.  They  offer  members  of  the  Legislature 
some  inducement  to  vote  for  a  bill  that  is  against  the 
interests  or  the  comfort  of  the  great  mass  of  people,  and 
in  the  interest  of  their  own  selfish  schemes.  The  voter  on 
election  day  should  think  of  this  and  try  to  prevent  it. 
He  should  not  vote  to  send  to  the  Legislature  a  man  who 
he  believes  can  be  bribed.  Just  as  the  happiness  of  the 
people  of  a  city  depends,  in  a  great  measure,  upon  the  kind 
of  men  they  send  to  the  City  Council,  so  the  happiness  of 
the  people  of  a  State  depends,  in  a  large  measure,  upon 
the  kind  of  men  they  send  to  represent  them  in  the  State 
Legislature.  If  we  can  get  good  laws  through  the  Legis- 
lature of  our  State,  we  have  advanced  a  long  way  on  the 
road  to  good  government. 

QUESTIONS   FOR    ORIGINAL  WORK 

1.  Why  are  there  two  branches  of  the  Legislature  ?  Why  should 
a  bill  be  passed  in  both  Houses  before  it  becomes  a  law?  Why  should 
there  be  three  readings  of  a  bill? 

2.  Has  a  Governor  of  your  State  the  veto  power?  What  is  the 
"pocket  veto"?  When  a  Governor  vetoes  a  bill,  does  he  act  as  a  leg- 
islative or  as  an  executive  officer  of  government? 

3.  If  the  Legislature  of  your  State  is  in  session,  find  out  what  im- 
portant measures  are  before  it.  Are  you  prepared  to  speak  intelli- 
gently about  any  of  these  measures?  Have  you  in  mind  any  law  you 
would  like  to  see  passed?     How  would  you  go  about  getting  it  passed? 


LESSON   XXIII  125 

What  is  the  name  of  the  senator  who  represents  you  in  the  Legisla- 
ture? 

4.  With  what  two  documents   should  a  member  of  the  Legislature 
be  familiar? 

5.  What  difference  do   you  observe  in  the  powers  of  the  Legisla- 
ture and  those  of  the  City  Council  ? 

6.  What  is  meant  by  ^^  sumptuary  laws  "  ? 

7.  What  is  meant  by  the  "lobby"? 

8.  In  what  way  may  men  be  bribed  without  actually  giving  them 
money  ? 

9.  If  a  Legislature  consists  of  a  body  of  rascals,  whose  fault  is  it? 


LESSON   XXIV 

THE  GOVERNOR  AND  HIS  ASSISTANTS 

"  Strictly  speaking,  the  Governor  is  not  the  head  of  the  executive 
department,  but  a  member  of  it.  The  executive  department  is  par- 
celed out  in  several  pieces,  and  his  is  one  of  the  pieces."  — John  Fiske. 

The  Governor.  —  As  soon  as  the  lawmakers  have  passed 
all  the  laws  that  seem  desirable,  they  leave  the  capital  and 
go  to  their  homes.  It  is  left  to  the  officers  of  the  execu- 
tive department  to  see  that  the  laws  are  obeyed.  At  the 
head  of  this  department  stands  the  Governor,  —  the  pilot  of 
the  ship  of  State.  The  Governor  is  elected  by  the  votes  of 
the  people.  His  term  of  office  in  some  States  is  for  one 
year ;  in  others,  it  is  for  two  years ;  in  others,  it  is  for  four 
years.  In  the  constitutions  of  most  States  it  is  required 
that  the  Governor  be  at  least  thirty  years  of  age,  and  that 
he  shall  have  been  a  resident  of  the  State  for  five  years 
before  his  election.  His  powers  are  great,  but  they  are 
granted  to  him  by  the  people,  and  if  he  abuses  his  power,  . 
he  may  be  impeached.     What  are  his  powers  and  duties } 

The  first  duty  of  a  Governor  is  to  see  that  the  laws  are 
faithfully  executed.  If  he  learns  that  the  law  is  being  vio- 
lated either  by  public  officers  or  private  persons,  he  must 
take  steps  to  have  the  laws  obeyed.  To  secure  obedience 
he  may  call  to  his  assistance  judges  and  sheriffs  and  even 

126 


LESSON   XXIV  127 

the  soldiers  of  the  State,  for  he  is  the  commander  in  chief 
of  the  land  and  naval  forces  within  the  State.  Sometimes 
when  a  mob  is  bent  on  destroying  life  and  property,  the 
Governor  calls  out  the  troops  and  sends  them  against  the 
mob.  When  public  business  is  to  be  conducted  between 
one  State  and  another,  the  Governor  acts  in  the  name  of 
the  State.  It  is  the  Governor's  duty  to  send  to  the  Legis- 
lature at  the  opening  of  the  session  a  message.  This 
message  informs  the  Legislature  of  the  condition  of  affairs 
throughout  the  State,  and  recommends  the  passage  of  such 
laws  as  the  Governor  thinks  ought  to  be  passed.  The 
Legislature,  however,  is  not  bound  to  pass,  or  even  to  con- 
sider, the  laws  recommended  in  a  message.  In  time  of 
danger  or  pressing  need,  if  the  Legislature  is  not  in  ses- 
sion, the  Governor  may  call  it  in  extra  session,  so  that  it 
may  at  once  pass  such  laws  as  the  moment  requires.  The 
Governor,  in  many  States,  has  the  power  to  pardon  crimi- 
nals. He  may  forgive  the  offense  entirely  and  restore  the 
criminals  to  freedom,  or  he  may  cormnute  the  punishment, 
that  is,  he  may  make  it  less  severe.  Sometimes,  when  a 
person  is  sentenced  to  be  hanged,  the  Governor  commutes 
the  punishment  to  imprisonment  for  life.  For  a  good 
reason  he  will  reprieve  or  postpone  the  execution  of  the 
death  sentence.  In  some  States  this  matter  of  pardon, 
commutation,  and  reprieve  is  not  left  to  the  Governor, 
but  is  intrusted  to  a  special  body  of  officers,  known  as  the 
Board  of  Pardons. 

Another  power  of  the  Governor  is  that  of  appointment. 
In  all  the  States  there  are  many  officers  who  are  not  elected 
directly  by  the  people,  but  receive  their  positions  by  ap- 


128  LESSONS   IN  CIVICS 

pointment.  Many  of  these  appointments  are  made  by  the 
Governor.  In  some  States  he  has  the  appointment  of  the 
judges  of  the  State  courts, —  a  great  responsibility.  In 
nearly  all  the  States  he  appoints  the  justices  of  the  peace. 
When  an  elective  official  dies  or  resigns  before  his  term 
ends,  the  Governor  fills  the  vacancy  by  appointing  some 
one  to  serve  until  another  election  is  held.  When  an 
officer  is  guilty  of  misconduct  in  office,  the  Governor  in 
most  States  may  remove  him  and  put  a  better  man  in  his 
place. 

The  above  are  a  few  of  the  powers  of  the  Governor.  In 
some  States  his  power  is  much  greater  than  in  others.  The 
question  of  the  "  power  of  the  executive  "  is  too  difficult 
for  you  to  discuss  now,  but  when  you  grow  up  to  be  voters, 
you  may  have  to  decide  whether  it  is  better  to  give  the 
Governor  much  power  or  to  give  him  little. 

Other  Executive  Officers.  — The  Governor  cannot  attend 
to  all  the  public  affairs  of  a  State.  .  He  must  have  assist- 
ants, just  as  the  Mayor  of  a  city  has  heads  of  departments 
to  assist  him.  These  assistants  of  the  Governor  are  high 
executive  officers  of  the  State,  and  they  are  generally 
elected  by  the  people.  Below,  you  will  find  the  names  of 
most  of  them,  with  a  short  explanation  of  their  duties  : 

(i)  The  Lieutenant  Governor.  —  A  lieutenant  is  an  officer 
who  takes  the  place  of  a  higher  officer,  when  that  officer 
is  absent  or  cannot  attend  to  his  duties.  Some  States  elect 
a  Lieutenant  Governor  to  serve  when  the  Governor  is  out 
of  the  State  or  is  unable  to  be  at  his  post.  The  duties  of 
the  Lieutenant  Governor  are  very  few.  We  have  seen 
that  he  has  the  right  to  act  as  the  President  of  the  State 


LESSON   XXIV  129 

Senate  ;  but  he  has  no  vote  in  that  body  except  when  there 
is  a  tie,  that  is,  when  there  is  an  equal  number  of  votes  for 
and  against  a  measure.  When  there  is  a  tie,  the  Lieuten- 
ant Governor  decides  the  question  by  voting  on  one  side  or 
on  the  other.  In  such  a  case  he  is  said  to  have  the  casting 
vote. 

(2)  The  Secretary  of  State. — This  officer,  sometimes 
elected,  sometimes  appointed  by  the  Governor,  is  the 
highest  clerk  of  the  executive  department.  He  has 
charge  of  State  papers,  of  the  Journals  of  the  Legisla- 
ture, and  of  historical  documents,  statuary,  paintings, 
relics,  etc.,  owned  by  the  State.  If  you  will  visit  his 
office  in  the  Statehouse,  you  may  find  some  very  inter- 
esting things  there. 

(3)  The  State  Comptroller.  —  A  comptroller  is  a  manager 
of  accounts.  The  Comptroller  of  a  State  manages  the 
financial  business  of  the  State  government.  He  attends 
to  business  relating  to  the  debt,  the  property,  the  claims, 
the  revenue  of  the  State.  He  superintends  the  collection 
of  taxes  due  to  the  State,  and  examines  the  claims  of  those 
to  whom  the  State  owes  money.  When  a  debt  of  the 
State  is  to  be  paid,  the  Comptroller  orders  the-  State 
Treasurer  to  pay  it. 

(4)  The  State  Treasurer.  —  We  have  learned  that  when 
a  town  or  a  county  collects  money'  by  taxation,  a  certain 
portion  of  the  money  must  be  given  over  to  the  State  gov- 
ernment. This  money  is  sent  to  the  State  Treasurer.  He 
either  keeps  it  in  a  large  iron  safe  at  the  capitol  or  gives 
it  to  some  reliable  bank  to  keep.  He  cannot  pay  a  dollar 
of  it  out  without  an  order   from  the  Comptroller.     Like 

LESS.    IN   CIV.  —  0 


130  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

the  other  treasurers  of  whom  we  have  spoken,  the  State 
Treasurer  must  give  bond  for  the  honest  performance  of 
his  duties. 

(5)  The  Attorney-General. — This  is  the  law  officer  of  the 
State,  corresponding  to  the  prosecuting  attorney  of  the 
county.  When  the  State  needs  the  services  of  a  lawyer, 
he  appears  for  it  in  the  courts.  When  any  executive 
officer  of  the  State  needs  legal  advice,  the  Attorney- 
General  is  called  upon  for  an  opinion. 

(6)  The  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  —  This  is 
the  highest  school  officer  of  the  State.  He  stands  in  the 
same  relation  to  the  counties  of  the  State  as  the  County 
Superintendent  stands  to  the  school  districts  of  the  county. 
The  officers  of  the  school  district  report  to  the  County 
Superintendent  and  the  County  Superintendents  report  to 
the  State  Superintendent.  In  this  way  the  State  Superin- 
tendent keeps  informed  of  the  condition  of  all  the  schools. 
He  prepares  a  report  and  sends  it  to  the  Legislature.  In 
this  report  he  states  the  needs  of  the  schools  and  suggests 
how  they  may  be  improved.  He  presides  at  the  meeting 
of  County  Superintendents  and  at  teachers'  institutes,  and 
furthers  the  cause  of  education  in  whatever  way  he  can. 

Impeachment.  —  If  it  is  charged  that  a  high  officer  of 
the  State  is  guilty  of  misconduct  in  office,  if,  for  example, 
the  Governor  is  accused  of  having  accepted  a  bribe  for 
signing  or  for  not  signing  a  bill ;  or  if  a  judge  is  accused 
of  trying  cases  while  he  is  drunk,  the  House  of  Represent- 
atives inquires  into  the  charges,  and  if  it  finds  that  there  is 
truth  in  them,  it  impeaches  the  offender,  that  is,  it  accuses 


LESSON   XXIV  131 

him  of  official  misconduct.  The  trial  of  the  officer  thus 
impeached  is  conducted  by  the  Senate.  That  body  listens 
to  the  evidence  against  the  impeached  officer,  and  if  it 
regards  him  guilty,  it  pronounces  judgment  against  him. 
An  officer  who  has  been  found  guilty  under  impeachment, 
can  no  longer  hold  an  office  of  honor,  trust,  or  profit  in 
the  State. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  WORK 

1.  What  is  the  name  of  the  chief  executive  officer  of  your  State. 

2.  Examine  the  constitution  of  your  State  for  answers  to  the  follow- 
ing questions : 

(a)  What  are  the  qualifications  of  the  Governor? 

(d  )  What  is  the  length  of  his  term  of  office  ? 

(c)  What  is  his  salary? 

(d)  Has  he  the  power  of  veto? 

(e)  Has  he  the  pardoning  power? 

(/)   May  he  remove  an  inefficient  officer? 
(£")    What  officers  does  he  appoint? 

(^)    If  there  is  no  Lieutenant  Governor,  who  will  fill  the  vacancy  if 
the  Governor  should  die  or  resign  ? 

3.  Ought  the  Lieutenant  Governor  to  preside  in  the  Senate  at  the 
trial  of  a  Governor,  whom  the  House  has  impeached  ? 

4.  When  the  Senate  tries  an  impeachment  case,  does  it  act  as  a 
legislative  or  judicial  body  ? 

5.  What  are  some  of  the  qualifications  of  a  good  Governor?  A  good 
Comptroller?  A  good  Attorney-General?  A  good  State  Superin- 
tendent of  Instruction? 

6.  Have  you  read  a  Governor's  message?  What  is  a  Governor's 
"proclamation"? 

7.  Does  the  constitution  of  your  State  provide  for  other  executive 
officers  not  mentioned  in  the  lesson? 


LESSON   XXV 

JUDGES,   JURIES,  AND  COURTS  OF  LAW 

"No  man's  property  is  safe,  and  no  man's  welfare  is  assured  where 
justice  is  denied  to  the  poor,  or  where  crime  goes  unpunished  :  no  State 
can  prosper  where  human  rights  are  not  respected."  —  David  A.  Wells. 

The  Judicial  Department.  —  You  have  learned  how  a 
law  is  made,  and  you  have  learned  the  names  and  duties  of 
those  officers  who  compel  obedience  to  the  laws.  But 
before  an  officer  can  punish  a  person  for  disobeying  the 
law,  it  must  first  have  been  decided  that  the  one  accused 
is  actually  guilty.  You  will  remember  that  the  decision  of 
this  question  is  left  neither  to  those  who  make  the  laws, 
nor  to  those  who  are  to  enforce  them,  but  to  a  third  body 
of  men,  the  judicial  officers  or  judges  of  the  State.  Every 
State  has  a  complete  judicial  system  by  which  citizens 
may  defend  their  rights  and  secure  justice.  It  is  this  judi- 
cial system  that  we  are  now  to  study.  We  will  begin  with 
the  lowest  part  of  the  system  and  proceed  to  the  highest. 

The  Justice  of  the  Peace.  —  Let  us  suppose  that  a  house 
has  been  burned  in  your  neighborhood,  and  that  a  man 
named  X  is  suspected  of  having  burned  it.  Some  citizen 
who  is  interested,  perhaps  the  owner  of  the  house,  will  file 
a  complaint  against  X  before  a  justice  of  the  peace.  This 
officer  is  usually  appointed  by  the  Governor,  but  is  some- 
times elected  by  the  people.    In  either  case  he  is  an  officer, 

132 


LESSON   XXV  133 

not  of  the  town  or  city  or  county,  but  of  the  State,  and  he 
acts  in  the  name  of  the  State.  He  renders  decisions  only 
in  small  and  unimportant  cases.  Thus,  if  a  man  is  sued  for 
a  few  dollars,  or  if  he  is  arrested  for  drunkenness,  or  fast 
driving,  his  case  could  be  decided  before  a  justice  of  the 
peace.  Returning  to  the  case  of  house  burning :  When 
the  complaint  is  filed  against  X,  the  justice  of  the  peace 
gives  a  constable,  or  policeman,  a  warrant  for  the  arrest  of 
the  accused,  who  is  brought  into  the  justice's  court.  Since 
X  is  charged  with  having  committed  an  awful  crime, —  the 
crime  of  arson, —  the  justice  cannot  try  his  case.  But  he 
can  do  this  :  He  can  listen  to  witnesses  for  and  against  X, 
and  if  he  believes  that  the  accused  is  probably  guilty,  he 
may  send  him  to  jail  to  await  trial  in  a  higher  court.  But 
this  trial  may  not  come  up  in  a  higher  court  for  several 
months,  and  if  X  is  an  innocent  man, —  and  the  law  sup- 
poses he  is  innocent  until  he  is  proven  guilty, —  it  would  be 
a  great  hardship  for  him  to  have  to  He  in  jail  for  so  long. 
This  he  need  not  do  if  he  can  get  bail.  To  give  bail,  he 
must  get  one  or  more  of  his  friends  to  sign  an  agreement 
to  pay  the  State  a  certain  sum  of  money  if  he  should  fail 
to  appear  in  court  for  trial  when  he  is  wanted.  This 
agreement  is  a  bond,  and  those  who  sign  it  are  bondsmen. 
If  X  runs  away  before  trial,  he  is  said  to  ''jump  bail." 
Let  us  suppose  he  is  able  to  give  bail,  and  that  he  awaits 
his  trial  like  a  man. 

The  Circuit  Court. — The  trial  of  X  will  take  place  be- 
fore the  judges  of  the  Circuit  Court  —  in  some  States 
called  the  District  Court,  in  others  the  Superior  Court.^ 

^  In  a  large  city  X  would  be  tried  before  the  Criminal  Court. 


134  LESSONS   IN  CIVICS 

The  judges  of  this  court,  usually  three  in  number,  hold 
court  in  the  courthouse  of  the  county  seat  two  or  three 
times  in  a  year.  The  same  judges  may  serve  in  several 
counties,  going  from  one  county  to  another.  It  is  for  this 
reason  they  are  sometimes  called  circuit  judges.  They  are 
generally  elected  by  the  people,  although  in  some  States 
they  are  appointed  by  the  Governor.  In  all  cases,  like 
justices  of  the  peace,  they  act  in  the  name  of  the  State. 

Into  this  Circuit  Court  X  is  brought  for  trial.  The 
crime  that  he  is  accused  of  is  supposed  to  have  been  com- 
mitted not  against  the  person  whose  house  was  burned,  but 
against  society,  against  the  whole  body  of  people,  against 
the  State.  It  is  the  State,  therefore,  that  brings  him  to 
trial.  The  State's  Attorney  brings  the  case  before  the 
grand  jury,  a  body  consisting  of  not  less  than  twelve  nor 
more  than  twenty-three  citizens,  whose  business  it  is  to 
find  violators  of  the  law  and  to  present  them  to  the  court 
for  trial.  These  grand  jurymen  summon  the  witnesses 
who  will  testify  against  X,  but  not  those  who  will  testify  in 
his  favor.  If  it  is  the  opinion  of  at  least  twelve  of  the 
grand  jury  that  X  ought  to  be  tried  for  the  burning  of  the 
house,  the  State's  Attorney  will  draw  up  an  indictmenty 
containing  the  charges  against  him,  and  the  foreman  of  the 
grand  jury  will  write  across  the  back  of  the  indictment  the 
words,  ''A  true  bill."  This  means  that  X  must  stand  a 
trial  in  court. 

The  examination  by  the  grand  jury  was  secret ;  but  the 
trial  in  court,  is  open  to  the  public.  When  X  is  brought 
into  court,  the  indictment  is  read  to  him,  and  he  is  asked 
whether  he  is   "guilty"   or    ''not  guilty."     His   reply   is 


LESSON   XXV  135 

called  2i plea.  If  his  plea  is  "guilty,"  the  judge  sentences 
him  to  be  punished  according  to  law.  If  his  plea  is  "  not 
guilty,"  the  judge  appoints  a  time  for  his  trial.  The  trial 
begins  by  the  selection  of  twelve  men  to  act  as  a  jury  to 
decide  whether  he  is  guilty  or  not.  This  is  called  the  petit 
jioy,  or  small  jury,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  grand  jury. 
The  members  of  the  petit  jury,  like  those  of  the  grand  jury, 
are  chosen  from  among  the  citizens  of  the  neighborhood, 
—  from  farmers,  mechanics,  merchants.  Some  of  them 
may  be  neighbors  of  X.  Before  they  are  allowed  to  serve, 
they  must  swear  that  they  have  not  formed  an  opinion 
upon  the  guilt  or  innocence  of  the  prisoner,  and  that  they 
will  decide  the  case  according  to  the  evidence  that  is  pre- 
sented to  them.  After  they  have  taken  this  oath,  the  jury- 
men sit  in  the  "jury  box"  and  listen  to  the.  testimony  of 
witnesses.  In  a  trial,  there  are  always  two  parties,  one 
called  the  plaintiff,  who  brings  the  complaint  or  suit  into 
court,  and  another,  called  the  defendant,  or  the  one  against 
whom  the  complaint  is  brought.  In  the  case  before  us  the 
State  is  the  plaintiff,  and  X  is  the  defendant.  The  State's 
Attorney,  in  behalf  of  the  plaintiff,  presents  the  case 
against  the  defendant  and  examines  witnesses  for  the 
State.  Another  lawyer  speaks  in  behalf  of  X  and  examines 
witnesses  who  have  testimony  in  his  favor.  After  the  evi- 
dence on  both  sides  has  been  heard,  and  after  the  judge 
has  given  his  charge  to  the  jury,  directing  them  on  some 
points  of  their  duty,  the  jury  retires  to  a  private  room  to 
talk  the  matter  over  and  come  to  a  decision.  If  they  can 
all  agree,  they  return  to  the  courtroom  with  their  verdict. 
If  the  verdict  is  "  guilty,"  the  judge  will  pronounce  sen- 


136  LESSONS   IN  CIVICS 

tence  upon  the  prisoner  in  open  court  and  give  him  over 
to  the  sheriff  for  punishment ;  if  the  verdict  is  "  not 
guilty,"  X  is  set  free,  and  he  cannot  be  tried  again  for 
the   same  offense. 

The  Supreme  Court.  —  If  after  X  is  sentenced,  his  law- 
yer can  show  that  strict  justice  has  not  been  secured,  he 
may  take  the  case  to  a  higher  court,  usually  called  the 
Supreme  Court,  or  Court  of  Appeals, —  the  highest  court  of 
the  State.  The  judges  of  this  court  meet  at  the  capital  of 
the  State  and  hear  cases  that  have  been  tried  in  the  court 
of  law.  The  Supreme  Court  will  not  try  the  case  of  X 
over  again,  but  it  will  listen  to  his  appeal,  and  if  it  is  shown 
that  the  judges  in  the  court  below  did  not  try  the  case  ac- 
cording to  law,  it  will  order  a  new  trial  and  thus  give  X 
another  chance  for  his  freedom ;  if  it  finds  that  the  trial 
was  properly  conducted  in  the  lower  court,  X  will  have  to 
bear  his  punishment. 

Civil  and  Criminal  Cases.  —  Cases  that  involve  crime, 
like  the  case  of  X,  are  called  criminal.  Most  of  the  cases, 
however,  that  are  tried  in  courts  do  not  relate  to  crime, 
but  to  the  ownership  of  property.  Such  cases  are  called 
civil.  The  chief  difference  between  a  criminal  and  a  civil 
case,  is  that  in  a  criminal  case  the  plaintiff  is  the  State ; 
while  in  a  civil  case,  the  plaintiff  is  a  private  person  or  a 
corporation.  The  history  of  a  civil  case  in  the  courts  is 
quite  like  that  of  a  criminal  case.  If  the  amount  of  prop- 
erty at  stake  is  small,  it  may  be  tried  before  a  justice  of 
the  peace.  If  the  amount  is  large,  the  case  is  tried  in 
the  Circuit  Court  (or  District  Court),  and  if  satisfaction  is 
not  obtained,  then  it  may  be  taken  to  the  Supreme  Court. 


LESSON   XXV  137 

QUESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  WORK 

1 .  Examine  the  constitution  of  your  State  for  answer  to  the  follow- 
ing questions. 

(a)    Are  judges  of  the  court  elected  or  appointed? 

(d)  What  are  the  qualifications  of  a  judge? 
(c)    How  long  do  they  hold  office? 

(^)   What  salaries  are  given  to  the  different  judges? 

(e)  Name  the  different  courts  of  the  State. 

(/")    How  may  a  judge  be  removed  from  his  office? 
(g)   Are  justices  of  the  peace  elected  or  appointed? 

2.  Can  the  people  choose  by  their  votes  a  better  judge  than  the 
Governor  can  select? 

3.  Why  should  the  term  of  office  of  a  judge  be  longer  than  that  of 
other  officers  ? 

4.  In  what  court  would  you  sue  a  man  for  a  debt  of  two  dollars? 
For  a  debt  of  ten  thousand  dollars?  In  what  court  would  a  man 
accused  of  murder  be  tried?     A  boy  accused  of  disorderly  conduct? 

5.  A  man  has  been  kept  in  jail  awaiting  trial.  The  trial  proves  him 
to  be  innocent.     Has  he  any  redress  ? 

6.  Which  are  the  most  important,  good  lawmakers,  good  executive 
officers,  or  good  judges  ? 

7.  What  are  some  of  the  unpleasant  things  a  judge  is  called  upon 
to  do? 

8.  Write  a  description  of  the  kind  of  a  man  you  think  would  make  a 
good  judge. 

9.  What  are  the  advantages  of  trial  by  jury? 


LESSON   XXVI 

THE   NATIONAL  GOVERNMENT 

"  Great  were  the  hearts  and  strong  the  minds 
Of  those  who  framed,  in  high  debate, 
The  immortal  league  of  love,  that  binds 
Our  fair  broad  Empire,  State  with  State."  —  Bryant. 

Importance  of  State  Government.  —  We  have  now  studied 
the  leading  facts  connected  with  several  of  the  govern- 
ments by  which  we  are  controlled.  We  have  studied  the 
government  of  the  family  and  learned  the  rights  and  du- 
ties of  parents  and  children;  we  have  studied  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  school  and  learned  the  rights  and  duties 
of  pupils  and  teachers ;  we  have  studied  the  government 
of  the  city,  county,  and  town,  and  have  learned  what  are 
the  powers  and  duties  of  the  officers  of  these  govern- 
ments; we  have  studied  the  government  of  the  State, 
and  have  learned  how  State  laws  are  made  and  enforced. 
We  shall  now  take  up  the  study  of  another  government ; 
but,  before  we  do  this,  I  wish  to  say  a  few  more  words 
about  the  State  government. 

Of  all  the  governments  we  have  studied,  that  of  the 
State  is  by  far  the  most  important.  Indeed,  all  the 
smaller  governments  depend  upon  the  State  government. 
The  affairs  of  the  home,  the  school,  the  county,  the  town, 
the  township,  the  city,  are  all  influenced  greatly  by  the 

138 


LESSON  XXVI  139 

government  of  the  State.  Think  how  much  this  means. 
It  means  that  the  State  gives  us  nearly  all  the  laws 
under  which  we  live.  It  means,  too,  that  everywhere 
in  the  different  parts  of  this  great  country  the  people 
may  have  in  a  large  measure  just  such  laws  as  they  like 
best.  The  people  of  Maine  are  not  compelled  to  live 
under  the  same  laws  as  the  people  of  Mississippi.  There 
are  forty-five  States,  and  each  State  may  have  a  consti- 
tution and  laws  to  suit  its  particular  case.  Thus  the 
people  of  each  State  have  the  right  of  local  self-government. 
Just  as  in  New  England  the  people  of  each  town  manage 
their  local  affairs  in  their  own  way,  so  the  people  of  each 
State  conduct  the  public  affairs  of  the  State  in  their  own 
way.  It  will  help  you  to  think  clearly  upon  some  important 
questions,  to  remember  that  a  State,  for  most  of  the  pur- 
poses of  government,  is  a  self-governing  community.  But 
it  is  not  entirely  independent.  There  is  a  government 
above  it,  —  the  government  of  the  United  States. 

The  Articles  of  Confederation.  —  You  know  that  after  the 
thirteen  colonies  declared  themselves  independent  of  Great 
Britain,  each  colony  was  left  a  free  and  independent  State. 
But  the  colonies  could  not  get  their  independence  without 
fighting  for  it,  and  they  could  not  fight  successfully  unless 
they  all  fought  together.  They  understood  this  perfectly 
well,  and  during  the  seven  years  of  war  with  England  they 
joined  hands  and  kept  them  joined  until  the  enemy  was 
conquered.  But  when  the  war  was  over,  and  England  had 
acknowledged  their  independence,  each  State  began  to 
think  more  of  its  own  interests  and  to  care  very  little  for 
union.     In  1783  the  thirteen  States  were  held  together  by 


140  LESSONS  IN  CIVICS 

the  Articles  of  Confederation,  a  form  of  government  that 
had  been  adopted  during  the  war.  Whatever  may  have 
been  the  value  of  these  Articles  in  times  of  danger  from  a 
foreign  foe,  in  times  of  peace  they  served  no  useful  pur- 
pose. They  gave  Congress  a  right  to  make  certain  useful 
laws,  but  they  gave  it  no  power  to  enforce  those  laws ; 
they  gave  it  the  right  to  declare  war,  but  they  did  not  give 
it  the  right  to  compel  men  to  serve  in  the  army ;  they  gave 
it  the  right  to  borrow  money,  but  they  did  not  give  it  the 
right  to  raise  money  by  taxation  in  order  to  pay  the  debt. 
In  other  words,  the  government  of  the  United  States  un- 
der the  Articles  of  Confederation  was  a  legislature  only : 
it  lacked  the  executive  and  judicial  powers.  It  was  like  a 
three-legged  stool  with  two  legs  gone.  Of  course,  such  a 
government  could  not  be  respected.  Yet  the  people  of  the 
States  felt  there  ought  to  be  union,  and  that  there  ought 
to  be  a  general  government  that  would  have  power  enough 
to  make  itself  respected.  What  prevented  such  a  union  ? 
It  was  the  pride  and  jealousy  of  the  States.  Each  State 
was  free  to  do  just  as  it  chose,  and  if  a  strong  union  was 
formed,  some  of  the  freedom  would  have  to  be  surrendered. 
Things  went  from  bad  to  worse  under  the  Confederation. 
Congress  was  mobbed  at  one  time  by  a  crowd  of  drunken 
men ;  soldiers  who  had  served  in  the  war  clamored  for 
their  pay,  but  there  was  no  way  to  raise  money  for  them. 
One    State    quarreled   with   another.^      Washington    and 

1  The  condition  of  affairs  under  the  Confederation  has  been  described  by 
Mr.  Fiske  in  his  "Critical  Period  of  American  History."  You  should  read 
this  book  and  learn  what  would  be  the  danger  and  evils  if  each  State  were 
allowed  to  do  entirely  as  it  pleased. 


LESSON   XXVI  141 

Madison  and  Hamilton  and  other  statesmen  saw  these 
evils  and  took  steps  to  remedy  them  before  it  was  too  late. 

The  Constitutional  Convention  of  1787.  —  It  was  one  of 
the  evils  under  the  Confederation  that  the  people  of  the 
different  States  could  not  trade  freely  with  each  other. 
The  New  Jersey  farmer  could  not  carry  his  produce  into 
New  York  without  first  paying  a  tax  upon  it.  Each  State 
had  its  own  customhouse,  and  collected  taxes  upon  goods 
brought  from  foreign  countries  and  turned  the  money  into 
its  own  treasury.  This  made  the  burden  of  taxation  un- 
equal in  the  different  States.  With  the  purpose  of  remedy- 
ing this  state  of  things,  and  taking  measures  to  make  the 
laws  of  trade  uniform,  a  convention  was  called  to  meet  at 
Annapolis  in  1786.  But,  as  only  five  of  the  thirteen  States 
responded  to  the  call,  the  delegates  thought  it  unwise  to 
proceed  further  with  the  business.  They  did,  however, 
make  a  report,  requesting  the  States  to  send  delegates  to 
another  convention  that  should  meet  in  the  following  year. 
With  this  request  all  the  States,  excepting  Rhode  Island, 
complied. 

In  May,  1787,  delegates  from  twelve  States  met  in  Phila- 
delphia for  the  purpose  of  amending  the  Articles  of  Confed- 
eration in  such  a  manner  as  to  correct  the  evils  of  which 
we  have  spoken.  In  this  convention  were  some  of  the  ablest 
men  our  country  has  produced.  There  w^ere  Washington 
and  Madison  and  Hamilton  and  Franklin.  These  men 
did  not  work  for  their  own  selfish  interests,  or  even  for  the 
advantage  of  a  particular  State,  but  for  the  advantage  of 
all  the  States.  The  sessions  of  the  convention  were 
secret,  but  we  know  most  of  the  things  that  were  said 


142  LESSONS    IN   CIVICS 

and  done  in  it.  It  soon  agreed  that  the  government  un- 
der the  Confederation  was  weak  and  worthless,  and  that 
an  entirely  new  form  of  government  was  necessary.  It 
saw  that,  instead  of  a  Confederation  of  the  States,  there 
ought  to  be  a  union  of  the  people.  How  was  this  to  be 
accomplished  ?  It  could  not  be  accomplished  without  the 
States  giving  up  some  of  their  rights,  and  would  they 
be  willing  to  do  this  ?  Most  of  the  members  thought 
the  States  would.  For  six  months  the  subject  was  de- 
bated, and  at  last  a  Constitution  for  the  government  of 
the  United  States  was  agreed  upon.  Probably  no  one  in 
the  Convention  thought  the  proposed  Constitution  was 
perfect.  The  words  of  the  aged  Franklin,  who  had  worked 
all  his  long  life  for  union,  will  give  us  an  idea  of  the  spirit 
in  which  the  work  of  the  Convention  was  done.  When 
the  labors  of  the  Convention  were  over,  and  the  members 
were  about  to  adjourn  and  go  home,  Franklin  arose  and 
said :  "  I  consent  to  this  Constitution  because  I  expect  no 
better,  and  because  I  am  not  sure  it  is  not  the  best.  I 
hope,  therefore,  that  for  our  own  sakes,  as  part  of  the  peo- 
ple, we  shall  act  heartily  and  unanimously  in  recommend- 
ing it  wherever  our  influence  may  extend,  and  turn  our 
future  thoughts  and  endeavors  to  means  of  having  it  well 
administered." 

The  Constitution  proposed  by  the  Convention  was  sent 
to  the  several  States  for  their  approval.  In  almost  every 
State  it  met  with  fierce  opposition.  The  new  government, 
it  was  claimed,  would  crush  out  the  rights  of  the  States, 
and  destroy  the  freedom  of  individuals.  But  the  Consti- 
tution had  strong  supporters,  and  one  by  one  the  States 


LESSON  XXVI  143 

voted  to  accept  it.  It  was  provided  that  when  nine  States 
approved  of  it,  it  should  go  into  effect.  By  July,  1788,  it 
had  been  approved  by  nine  States,  and  it,  therefore,  be- 
came a  law  of  the  land.  Two  States,  North  Carolina  and 
Rhode  Island,  refused  to  accept  it,  and  remained  out  of  the 
Union  for  some  time.  If  these  States  had  so  desired,  they 
could  have  remained  out  until  this  day,  and  they  would 
now  be  foreign  countries.  In  1789,  however.  North  Caro- 
lina joined  the  Union,  and  in  1791  Rhode  Island  did  like- 
wise. The  government  under  the  new  Constitution  began 
to  transact  business  in  New  York  in  April,  1789.  In  1790 
the  seat  of  government  was  removed  to  Philadelphia,  and 
in  1800  to  Washington,  which  has  remained  the  capital  of 
the  United  States.  The  Constitution  framed  by  the  Con- 
vention of  1787  is  the  Constitution  under  which  we  live 
to-day.  We  shall  now  study  this  important  document. 
You  will  find  a  copy  of  it  in  almost  any  school  history  of 
the  United  States. 


LESSON    XXVII 

THE  NATIONAL  LEGISLATURE 

"The  American  Constitution  is,  so  far  as  I  can  see,  the  most  won- 
derful work  ever  struck  off  at  a  given  time  by  the  brain  and  purpose  of 
man." —  VVilliain  E.  Gladstone, 

The  Preamble  to  the  Constitution.  —  The  Constitution  of 
the  United  States  will  remind  you  of  your  State  Consti- 
tution. It  provides  for  a  government  of  three  depart- 
ments, the  legislative,  the  executive,  and  the  judicial,  and 
it  contains  a  Bill  of  Rights.,  It  begins  with  a  few  words 
called  the  preainbley  which  state  the  reasons  for  forming 
a  national  government.  The  words  of  the  preamble 
are : 

*'  We,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form 
a  more  perfect  union,  establish  justice,  insure  domestic 
tranquillity,  provide  for  the  common  defense,  promote  the 
general  welfare,  and  secure  the  blessings  of  liberty  to 
ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do  ordain  and  establish  this 
Constitution  for  the  United  States  of  America." 

If  you  have  studied  the  last  lesson  carefully,  you  will 
understand  the  preamble.  The  States  were  disunited, 
were  jealous  of  each  other  and  quarreled  with  each  other ; 
the  Constitution  proposed  to  form  a  "more  perfect  union." 
When  quarrels  arose  between  a  State  and  a  citizen  of 
another  State,  or  between  citizens  living  in  different  States, 

144 


LESSON   XXVII  145 

there  was  no  good  way  of  settling  the  dispute ;  the  Con- 
stitution proposed  to  "  establish  justice,"  by  organizing  a 
system  of  courts  in  which  such  disputes  might  be  settled. 
There  had  been  rebellion  and  serious  uprisings  in  some 
of  the  States ;  the  Constitution  proposed  to  have  '*  do- 
mestic tranquillity  "  —  peace  at  home.  Under  the  Articles 
of  Confederation,  the  defense  against  the  attacks  of  In- 
dians, or  even  against  a  foreign  foe,  depended  largely 
upon  the  resistance  of  the  particular  State  that  suffered ; 
the  Constitution  provided  for  a  '*  common  defense,"  that 
is,  it  proposed  to  support  a  national  army,  which  should 
be  ready  at  any  time  to  defend  a  single  State  or  all  the 
States  against  an  enemy.  Before  1787  each  State  made 
laws  to  suit  its  own  local  interests,  without  regard  to  the 
interests  of  other  States ;  the  Constitution  proposed  to 
make  laws  that  would  ''promote  the  general  welfare"  — 
the  welfare  of  all  the  States.  In  the  words  of  the  pream- 
ble are  wrapped  up  all  the  purposes  and  objects  of  the 
government  that  meets  at  Washington.  You  should  learn 
the  preamble  by  heart. 

Congress.  —  The  most  important  department  of  a  gov- 
ernment is  its  lawmaking  body.  For  this  the  Constitu- 
tion provides  first.  It  provides  that  laws  of  the  national 
government  shall  be  made  by  a  body  called  a  Congress, 
and  that  the  Congress  shall  have  two  branches,  a  Senate 
and  a  House  of  Representatives,  just  like  the  Legislature 
of  a  State.  This  Congress  every  year,  on  the  first  Mon- 
day in  December,  meets  in  the  magnificent  Capitol  at 
Washington ;  the  Senate  at  one  end  of  the  building,  the 
House  of  Representatives  at  the  other  end. 

LESS.   IN   CIV.  —  10 


146  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

You  should  try  to  visit  Washington  when  Congress  is 
in  session,  for  it  is  an  impressive  sight  to  see  a  body  of 
men  making  laws  for  a  great  nation. 

The  House  of  Representatives.  —  It  is  the  purpose  of  the 
Constitution  that  the  will  of  the  people  shall  be  expressed 
in  the  House  of  Representatives.  Hence,  members  of 
this  branch  of  Congress  are  elected  by  a  direct  popular 
vote,  and  each  State  is  represented  according  to  its  popu- 
lation. During  the  first  years  of  national  government 
a  State  was  allowed  one  representative  for  every  30,000 
inhabitants.  If  this  number  had  remained  unchanged,  the 
House  of  Representatives  would  now  consist  of  nearly 
2500  members,  and  would  be  a  body  much  too  large  for 
the  transaction  of  business  in  a  deliberate  way.  But  it 
has  not  remained  unchanged ;  as  population  has  increased, 
the  number  of  inhabitants  for  each  representative  has 
been  made  larger.  At  the  present  time  each  State  is 
allowed  to  send  one  representative  for  every  173,901 
inhabitants.  This  gives  Delaware  one  member  in  the 
House,  and  New  York  thirty-four  members.  The  repre- 
sentatives from  all  the  States  number  357.  Each  State 
is  divided  by  its  Legislature  into  a  number  of  Congres- 
sional Districts,  each  district  containing,  as  near  as  may  . 
be,  173,901  inhabitants,  so  that  it  may  be  entitled  to  one 
representative.  Thus  Iowa,  with  1,911,896  inhabitants, 
is  divided  into  eleven  Congressional  Districts,,  and  is 
entitled  to  eleven  members  in  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives. 

The  House  of  Representatives,  upon  meeting,  organizes 
in  very  much  the  same  way  that  the  lower  house  in   a 


LESSON   XXVII  147 

State  Legislature  is  organized.  A  Speaker,  a  Clerk,  a 
Sergeant-at-Arms,  and  Messengers  are  elected,  and  Com- 
mittees are  appointed  by  the  Speaker. 

The  Senate.  —  The  States  are  represented  in  Congress 
by  senators.  It  was  the  purpose  of  those  who  framed  the 
Constitution  to  preserve  the  power  and  dignity  of  the 
State  as  far  as  possible.  For  this  reason  one  State  is  as 
well  represented  in  the  Senate  as  another;  each  State, 
whether  great  or  small,  being  entitled  to  two  senators. 
Nevada,  which  has  a  population  of  45,000,  has  as  much 
power  in  the  Senate  as  has  New  York,  with  a  population 
of  7,000,000.  This,  at  first  sight,  may  seem  to  you  to  be 
unjust,  but  the  more  you  study  the  subject  the  more  reason 
you  will  see  for  the  law.  Probably  the  only  way  to  enable 
the  smaller  States  to  preserve  their  rights  is  to  give  them 
equal  power  with  the  larger  States  in  the  Senate.  Sena- 
tors are  not  elected  by  the  people  but  by  the  Legislatures 
of  the  different  States.  The  election  is  so  arranged  that 
when  a  new  Congress  meets  only  one  third  of  the  Senate 
can  consist  of  new  members.  As  there  are  now  forty-five 
States,  the  Senate  consists  of  ninety  members;  and  sixty 
of  these  are  experienced  lawmakers. 

How  a  Law  is  passed  in  Congress.  —  A  law  is  passed  in 
Congress  in  almost  the  same  way  that  one  is  passed  in 
the  Legislature  of  a  State.  A  bill  is  introduced  into  one 
of  the  Houses,  is  referred  to  its  proper  Committee,  is 
reported  upon,  is  read  three  times  upon  three  different 
days,  is  voted  upon,  and  if  it  receives  a  majority  of  votes, 
is  sent  to  the  other  House,  where  it  has  almost  the  same 
history.     If  it  passes  in  this  House,  also,  it  is  sent  to  the 


148  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

President  for  his  approval.  If  he  approves  the  bill,  he 
signs  it  and  it  becomes  a  law.  If  he  does  not  approve  it, 
he  vetoes  it ;  that  is,  he  returns  it  to  the  House  without 
his  signature  and  with  his  objections.  If  two  thirds  of  the 
members  of  each  House  still  vote  for  the  bill,  notwith- 
standing the  objections  of  the  President,  it  becomes  a  law 
without  his  approval. 

EXERCISE 

(By  examining  the  second  and  third  sections  of  the  first  Articles  of 
the  Constitution  you  will  be  enabled  to  fill  the  blanks  properly.) 

A  member  of  the  House  of  Representatives  is  elected  to  serve  for 
years.  No  person  can  be  elected  in  this  branch  of  Congress  un- 
less he  is  at  least years  of  age  and  has  been  a of  the 

for  at  least years.     He  must  also  reside  in  the in  v^hich  he 

is  elected.     A  senator  of  the  United   States  is  elected  by  the of 

a to    serve    for years.     He     must  be  at  least years  of 

age,  and  must  at  the  time  of  his  election  have  been  a of  the 

in  which  he  is  elected.  Both  senators  and  representatives  are  privileged 
from while  in  attendance  upon . 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  salary  of  a  representative?  Of  a  senator?  How 
are  these  salaries  paid? 

2.  What  are  the  names  of  the  senators  who  represent  your  State  in 
Congress  ? 

3.  How  many  representatives  does  your  State  send  to  Congress? 
In  what  Congressional  District  do  you  live?  What  is  the  name  of  your 
representative? 

4.  Should  senators  be  elected  by  the  direct  vote  of  the  people  ? 


LESSON   XXVIII 

WHAT  CONGRESS  MAY  DO 

The  Power  of  Congress  Limited.  —  What  are  the  powers 
of  the  national  lawmaking  body  described  in  your  last 
lesson  ?  A  glance  at  history  will  help  you  to  understand 
this  question.  You  remember  that  after  the  Declaration 
of  Independence  each  State  was  practically  a  free  and 
independent  republic,  and  had  in  itself  all  the  power  of 
government.  There  was  nothing  that  a  government  can 
wisely  do  that  the  government  of  a  State  could  not  do. 
The  States  were  proud  of  this  great  power.  Like  indi- 
viduals they  loved  their  pride  and  their  will.  Now,  when 
the  Union  was  formed,  in  1787,  it  was  necessary  to  give 
up  some  of  this  power.  But  the  States  were  careful  to 
give  up  as  little  power  as  possible,  and  they  were  ex- 
tremely careful  to  have  it  understood  just  what  powers 
they  meant  to  give  up,  and  to  reserve  for  themselves  all 
powers  that  they  did  not  give  up.  Therefore,  certain 
definite  powers  of  the  new  government  were  plainly 
stated.  These  powers  it  might  exercise,  and  no  others. 
All  powers  not  granted  to  the  general  government  were 
reserved  to  the  States.  The  answer  to  the  question, 
"What  can  Congress  do  .'^ "  is  this:  It  can  do  what  it 
is  written  in  the  Constitution  it  can  do,  and  it  can  do  no 
more.     The  answer  to  the  question,  "What  can  the  Legis- 

149 


ISO  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

lature  of  a  State  do  ? "  is  this :  It  can  do  anything  that  is 
not  contrary  to  the  constitution  of  the  State,  or  to  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States.  In  other  words,  Con- 
gress is  a  lawmaking  body  with  limited  powers. 

The  Powers  of  Congress.  —  You  will  find  most  of  the 
powers  of  Congress  stated  in  the  eighth  section  of  the 
first  article  of  the  Constitution.  This  section  says  that 
Congress  shall  have  power : 

(i)  "  To  collect  taxes,''  for  the  support  of  the  national 
government.  It  takes  an  immense  sum  of  money  to  sup- 
port the  national  government.  The  salaries  of  nearly 
sixty  thousand  officials  and  the  pensions  of  nearly  a 
million  of  old  soldiers,  and  soldiers'  widows,  must  be 
paid ;  costly  public  buildings  in  Washington  and  custom- 
houses and  post-offices  in  large  cities  must  be  built;  ex- 
pensive war  ships  and  fortifications  must  be  maintained ; 
an  army  and  a  navy  must  be  supported.  To  do  all  this 
requires  nearly  ^500,000,000  per  year.  Congress  raises 
most  of  this  enormous  sum  in  two  ways :  First,  it  levies 
a  tax  called  a  duty,  or  tariff,  upon  goods  brought  into  this 
country  from  foreign  countries.  This  duty  is  collected 
at  customhouses  situated  in  the  great  cities.  Second,  it 
levies  a  tax,  called  the  internal  revenue  tax,  upon  liquors 
and  tobacco  manufactured  within  the  United  States. 

(2)  *'  To  borrozv  money ^'  when  the  government  is  pressed 
for  cash.  When  an  individual  borrows  money  he  gives 
the  lender  a  note  stating  the  amount  loaned,  the  time  of 
payment,  and  the  rate  of  interest  that  is  to  be  paid.  In 
the  same  way,  when  a  government  borrows  money  it  gives 


LESSON   XXVIII  151 

to  the  lender  its  printed  notes.  The  notes  thus  issued  by 
a  government  are  called  bonds.  The  United  States  has 
borrowed  in  this  way  vast  sums  of  money.  When  the 
Civil  War  was  over,  its  debt  was  nearly  $3,ooo,cx)0,ooo. 
This  has  been  reduced  to  somewhat  less  than  ;^2,ooo,- 
000,000. 

(3)  "  To  regulate  commerced  —  Under  this  power  Con- 
gress places  heavy  duties  upon  certain  classes  of  imported 
goods  so  that  our  own  goods  of  the  same  kind  may  be 
protected  against  the  competition  of  the  foreign  market: 
People  who  believe  in  keeping  out  foreign  goods  in  this 
way  are  called  "protectionists."  Those  who  believe  in 
allowing  foreign  goods  to  come  in  without  being  taxed, 
are  called  *'free  traders."  When  you  become  voters  you 
will  probably  be  called  upon  to  decide  either  for  protection 
or  for  free  trade.  Congress  further  regulates  commerce 
by  registering  American  vessels,  providing  for  lighthouses 
and  life-saving  stations  along  the  coast,  and  improving 
harbors  and  opening  rivers  to  navigation. 

(4)  **  To  establish  a  imiform  rule  of  naturalizatio7t''  —  In 
a  former  lesson  you  learned  what  is  meant  by  naturaliza- 
tion. The  laws  relating  to  this  subject  must  be  made  by 
Congress. 

(5)  '^  To  establish  uniform  laws  on  the  subject  of  bank- 
ruptcies throughout  the  United  States ^  —  When  a  person 
owes  more  money  than  his  property  is  worth,  he  is  a 
bankrupt.  The  creditors  of  a  bankrupt  have  a  right  to 
take  such  property  as  he  has,  and  divide  it  fairly  among 
themselves.  If  Congress  so  chooses  it  has  the  right  to 
make  the  laws  regulating  bankruptcies. 


152  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

(6)  "  To  coin  moneys  —  Before  the  Constitution  was 
adopted  there  was  great  confusion  in  the  kind  of  money 
in  use.  No  two  States  had  coins  of  the  same  size  and 
value.  They  used  foreign  money  chiefly.  Few  States 
had  mint's.  The  Constitution  took  the  right  of  coining 
money  away  from  the  States  and  gave  it  to  Congress. 
Under  this  power  Congress  has  established  in  different 
parts  of  the  country  mints  where  gold,  silver,  nickel,  and 
copper  coins  are  made.  Since  a  coin  of  a  given  denomi- 
nation is  always  of  the  same  weight  and  fineness,  it  circu- 
lates freely  in  any  part  of  the  Union. 

(7)  ''  To  fix  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures ^  —  A 
yardstick  should  be  just  as  long,  and  a  pound  weight  just 
as  heavy  in  Pennsylvania,  as  the  one  or  the  other  is  in 
California,  and  Congress  has  the  right  to  require  that  this 
shall  be  the  case.  In  point  of  fact,  however,  Congress 
has  not  exercised  this  right  very  fully.  The  national 
government  presents  a  full  set  of  weights  and  measures 
to  the  government  of  each  State,  and  the  State  adopts 
these  as  correct.  Thus  throughout  all  the  States  mer- 
chants use  standard  weights  and  measures. 

(8)  "  To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  coiinteifeiting  the 
securities  and  ciLri'ent  coin  of  the  United  States T  —  A  per- 
son convicted  of  counterfeiting  the  money  of  the  United 
States  may  be  fined  five  thousand  dollars,  and  imprisoned 
for  ten  years. 


LESSON   XXIX 
WHAT  CONGRESS  MAY  DO  (Continued) 

Congress  has  power : 

(9)  **  To  establish  post  offices  and  post  roads''  —  It  is 
through  the  post  office  that  the  national  government  meets 
the  citizen  in  his  daily  life.  Letter  carriers  and  post- 
masters are  officers  of  the  United  States.  It  is  plain  that 
the  States  could  not  attend  to  the  carrying  of  the  mails. 
The  government  of  the  State  of  Maine  could  not  well  fol- 
low a  letter  addressed  to  a  town  in  Oregon. 

(10)  ^*  To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts 
by  sectoring  for  limited  times  to  authors  and  inventors  the 
exclusive  right  to  their  respective  writings  a7id  discoveries '' 
—  Authors  are  encouraged  to  write  good  books  by  giving 
them  a  copyright  upon  their  works.  The  person  who  has 
a  copyright  upon  a  book  is  the  only  one  who  can  print 
and  sell  it.  A  copyright  lasts  for  twenty-eight  years.  It 
is  secured  by  entering  the  title  and  sending  two  copies  of 
the  printed  book  to  the  Librarian  of  Congress  in  Wash- 
ington. Congress  encourages  useful  inventions  by  grant- 
ing/^to^/i-  to  inventors.  A  patent  upon  a  machine  gives 
the  one  who  holds  the  patent  the  exclusive  right  to  make 
and  sell  or  use  the  machine.  Rights  under  a  patent  last 
for  seventeen  years.     The  inventor  sends  drawings  and  a 

153 


154  LESSONS   IN  CIVICS 

model  of  his  invention  to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents  at 
Washington,  and  if  it  is  found  that  he  has  invented  some- 
thing really  new  a  patent  will  be  granted. 

(ii)  ^^  To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  Supreme 
Court.''  —  This  will  be  explained  when  we  come  to  the 
judicial  department  of  the  national  government. 

(12)  ^^  To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies  corn- 
knitted  on  the  high  seas,  afid  offenses  against  the  law  of 
nations^  —  Piracy,  is  robbery  upon  the  sea.  The  national 
government  punishes  pirates  because  their  crime  is  com- 
mitted outside  of  the  boundary  of  a  State.  When  a 
citizen  commits  an  offense  against  a  foreign  nation  the 
injured  nation  regards  the  offender  as  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States,  and  not  as  a  citizen  of  a  State.  It  is 
the  national  government,  therefore,  that  must  punish  pira- 
cies and  offenses  against  the  laws  of  nations. 

(13)  ^^  To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  repri- 
sal, and  make  rules  concerfiing  captures  on  land  and  water'' 
—  As  the  evils  of  war  would  fall  on  many  States,  it  is  not 
right  that  a  single  State  should  be  allowed  to  declare  war. 
War,  therefore,  can  only  be  declared  by  Congress,  and 
conducted  by  the  national  government.  Sometimes  Con- 
gress grants  to  private  persons  the  right  to  go  and  seize 
certain  property  belonging  to  a  foreign  country.  Such  a 
commission,  called  a  letter  of  marque  and  reprisal,  cannot 
be  granted  by  a  State.  When  in  times  of  war  valuable 
property  is  captured,  the  prize  must  be  divided  among  the 
captors  according  to  the  direction  of  the  national  govern- 
ment. 

(14)  ^^  To  raise  and  stipport  armies," 


LESSON  XXIX  155 

(15)  "  To  provide  and  maintahi  a  navy'' 

(16)  ^^  To  make  rules  for  the  regulation  of  the  land  and 
naval  forces.'' 

(17)  **  To  pfwide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute 
the  lazvs  of  the  Union  .  .  .  and  repel  invasion."  —  The 
regular  or  standing  army  of  the  United  States  consists  of 
about  60,000  soldiers.  In  times  of  peace  this  number  is 
large  enough,  but  in  times  of  war,  it  is,  of  course,  too 
small.  When  the  national  government  needs  a  large 
army  for  the  defense  of  the  country.  Congress  may  call 
out  the  militia  of  the  States.  The  militia  of  a  State  con- 
sists of  all  its  able-bodied  male  citizens  between  the  ages 
of  eighteen  and  forty-five.  The  law  usually  excuses  the 
civil  officers  of  government,  clergymen,  teachers,  physi- 
cians, and  firemen  from  military  service.  With  these  ex- 
ceptions, every  strong  man  in  the  country  is  a  member  of 
the  militia,  and  may  be  called  upon  to  serve  in  the  army. 
Thus  it  is  in  the  power  of  Congress  to  raise  an  immense 
army  for  the  support  of  the  national  government  and  for 
the  defense  of  the  nation  against  a  foreign  enemy. 

(18)  "  To  provide  for  organizing^  arming  and  disciplin- 
ing the  militia^  and  for  governing  such  part  of  them  as  may 
be  employed  in  the  service  of  the  Uftited  States." 

(19)  ^^  To  exercise  exclusive  legislation"  over  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia.  Under  this  rule  the  people  of  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  which  includes  the  city  of  Washington, 
have  no  voice  in  the  government  of  their  city.  Congress 
acts  as  a  kind  of  City  Council  for  the  government  of 
Washington.  It  appoints  three  Commissioners  who  con- 
duct the  public  business  of  the  District. 


156  LESSONS   IN  CIVICS 

(20)  "  The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing 
the  electors  for  President  and  Vice  President  of  the  United 
States''  —  This  will  be  explained  when  we  come  to  speak 
of  the  election  of  the  President. 

(21)  **  The  Congress  may  by  law  provide  for  the  case  of 
removal,  death,  resignatiofi,  or  inability,  both  of  the  Presi- 
dent and  Vice  Presidents  —  Under  this  power,  in  1886, 
Congress  passed  a  law  providing  that  if  both  President 
and  Vice  President  die,  the  Secretary  of  State  shall  act  as 
President ;  if  the  Secretary  of  State  dies,  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury  shall  act  as  President ;  and  so  on  down 
through  the  Cabinet,  the  Secretary  of  War  coming  third, 
the  Attorney-General  fourth,  the  Postmaster-General  fifth, 
the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  sixth,  the  Secretary  of  the  In- 
terior seventh. 

(22)  ''  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the  Congress  into 
this  UniojiS  —  Under  this  power  Congress  has  admitted 
thirty-two  States  since  the  formation  of  the  Union. 

(23)  "  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  .  .  .  make  all 
needful  rules  and  regulations  respecting''  Territories. — A 
Territory  is  governed  under  a  Territorial  Law,  passed  by 
Congress.  Its  Governor,  judges,  and  other  chief  officers 
are  appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States.  It 
is  entitled  to  send  to  Congress  a  delegate,  who  may  speak 
upon  questions  relating  to  his  Territory,  but  may  not  vote. 
When  the  people  of  a  Territory  desire  to  be  admitted  into 
the  Union  as  a  State,  a  petition  is  sent  by  the  Territorial 
Legislature  to  Congress.  If  Congress  thinks  that  the 
Territory  has  a  sufficient  number  of  people  and  are  capa- 
ble of  governing  themselves  as  a  State,  it  passes  a  law 


LESSON   XXIX  157 

giving  to  the  voters  of  the  Territory  the  right  to  elect 
members  to  a  Constitutional  Convention.  The  members 
of  this  convention  meet  and  frame  a  constitution  for  the 
new  State,  and  submit  it  to  the  voters  of  the  Territory  for 
their  approval.  If  the  proposed  constitution  receives  a 
majority  of  the  votes,  it  is  sent  to  the  President  of  the 
United  States,  who,  if  he  finds  in  it  nothing  contrary  to 
the  spirit  of  our  institutions  or  to  the  Constitution  or  laws 
of  the  land,  issues  a  proclamation  admitting  the  Territory 
into  the  Union  as  a  State.  Under  their  new  State  con- 
stitution the  people  have  more  of  the  rights  of  self-govern- 
ment than  they  had  when  they  were  a  Territory.  As  a 
member  of  the  Union,  the  new  State  shares  in  the  election 
of  a  President,  it  sends  two  senators  to  the  United  States 
Senate  and  it  is  entitled  to  representation  in  the  House 
of  Representatives  according  to  its  population.  Besides 
Alaska  and  the  Indian  Territory,  the  only  Territories  that 
now  remain  to  be  admitted  are  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  and 
Oklahoma.  Hawaii  is  governed  by  a  special  commission. 
(24)  **  The  Congress  shall  have  pozver  to  make  all  laws 
zvhich  shall  he  necessary  and  proper  for  carrying  into  execu- 
tion the  foregoing  powers  .  .  .  '*  —  This  has  been  called 
the  '*  elastic  clause "  of  the  Constitution,  because  the 
words  "  necessary  and  proper "  may  be  stretched  to 
mean  almost  anything.  Under  this  power  Congress  has 
passed  laws  that  many  people  think  it  had  no  right  to 
pass.  The  intention  of  the  clause  was  to  give  Congress 
the  right  to  pass  such  laws  as  were  necessary  to  accom- 
plish the  objects  for  which  the  Constitution  was  framed. 


LESSON   XXX 

WHAT  THE  CONSTITUTION  FORBIDS 

What  Congress  may  not  Do.  —  In  order  to  guard  the 
interests  of  the  States,  the  framers  of  the  Constitution 
were  careful  to  mention  certain  things  that  the  national 
government  may  not  do.  What  these  things  are  may 
be  found  in  the  ninth  section  of  the  first  article  of  the 
Constitution. 

(i)  Slavery, — The  first  prohibition  refers  to  the  impor- 
tation of  slaves,  but  as  slavery  has  been  abolished  we  may 
pass  this  subject  by.  (See  Article  XIII.  of  the  Amend- 
ments.) 

(2)  The  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  suspended. 

(3)  a.  No  bill  of  attainder  sh3\\  be  passed.  This  means 
that  Congress  may  not  condemn  a  person  to  death,  or  to 
outlawry  and  banishment,  without  opportunity  for  defend- 
ing himself  in  a  court  of  law. 

b.  No  ex  post  facto  law  shall  be  passed.  An  ex  post 
facto  law  establishes  or  increases  the  penalty  of  an  act 
after  it  has  been  committed.  For  example,  if  Congress 
should  pass  a  law  establishing  the  penalty  of  death  upon 
a  man  found  guilty  of  counterfeiting  money  a  year  ago, 
such  a  law  would  be  ex  post  facto,  for  at  the  time  when 
the  crime  was  committed  the  penalty  for  counterfeiting 

158 


LESSON  XXX  159 

was  only  fine  and  imprisonment.  Let  your  teacher  pass 
an  ex  post  facto  law,  and  you  will  readily  see  the  wisdom 
of  forbidding  such  laws. 

(4)  ^^  No  capitation  or  other  direct  tax  shall  be  laid 
unless  in  proportion  to  the  census  or  emirneration  herein- 
before directed  to  be  taken''  —  This  means  that  if  Congress 
should  pass  a  capitation,  or  poll  tax,  it  must  be  the  same 
in  all  States.  If  a  direct  tax  on  property  should  be  laid 
by  Congress,  it  would  have  to  be  apportioned  among  the 
States  in  proportion  to  their  populations.  Thus,  if  the 
United  States  Government  should  raise  $35,000,000  by 
a  direct  tax,  the  property  holders  of  Georgia  would  pay 
about  $1,000,000  of  the  sum,  for  the  population  of  this 
State  is  about  one  thirty-fifth  of  the  entire  population  of 
the  Union. 

(5)  ''No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported 
from  any  State,  No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regii- 
lation  of  commerce  or  revenue  to  the  ports  of  one  State  over 
those  of  another''  —  This  clause  compels  Congress  to  treat 
all  the  States  alike  in  the  matter  of  indirect  taxes. 

(6)  "  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury  but  in 
C07isequence  of  appropriations  made  by  law,  and  a  regular 
statement  and  account  of  the  receipts  and  expejtditures  of  all 
public  money  shall  be  published  from  time  to  time."  —  Not 
one  dollar  can  be  taken  from  the  treasury  until  Congress 
has  passed  a  law  stating  the  uses  to  which  it  is  to  be  put. 

(7)  ''No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United 
States."  —  Such  titles  as  Prince,  Duke,  Earl,  etc.,  are  not 
in  keeping  with  democratic  government,  and  very  properly 
they  cannot  be  conferred  by  Congress. 


l6o  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

(8)  ^^  No  person  Jiolding  any  office  of  profit  or  trust  .  .  . 
shall^  zvithoiU  the  consent  of  Congress,  accept  of  any  present y 
emolument,  office ,  or  title  of  any  kind  whatever,  from  a7iy 
king,  prince,  or  foreign  state.'' 

What  a  State  may  not  Do.  —  The  makers  of  the  Con- 
stitution took  the  greatest  pains  to  make  clear  the  powers 
of  the  national  government,  and  to  define  its  relations 
to  the  State  government.  In  section  eight,  of  the  first 
article,  the  Constitution  tells  what  Congress  may  do;  in 
section  nine  it  states  what  Congress  may  not  do ;  in  sec- 
tion ten  it  tells  what  a  State  may  not  do.  You  will  notice 
that  the  things  a  State  is  forbidden  to  do  are  either  the 
things  that  the  national  government  is  given  the  right  to 
do,  or  they  are  those  things  that  Congress  is  forbidden  to 
do  because  it  is  not  right  that  any  government  should  do 
them.  Thus,  no  State  shall  coin  money,  for  it  is  the  busi- 
ness of  the  United  States  to  coin  money;  no  State  shall 
pass  any  ex  post  facto  law,  because  such  a  law  should  not 
be  passed  by  any  government. 

The  Fifteen  Amendments.  —  Some  of  the  most  important 
provisions  respecting  the  powers  of  the  national  govern- 
ment are  to  be  found  in  the  Amendments  to  the  Constitu- 
tion. (In  Article  V.  you  may  learn  how  the  Constitution 
is  amended.)  The  people  of  the  States  in  the  early  years 
of  our  history  were  fearful  lest  the  national  government 
should  have  too  much  power,  and  they  hastened  to  secure 
amendments  that  would  preserve  all  needful  rights  to  the 
States,  and  that  would  bind  the  hands  of  Congress  if  it 
attempted  to  encroach  upon  their  rights.     Of  the  fifteen 


LESSON   XXX  l6l 

amendments  that  have  been  made  since  1789,  ten  were 
added  within  three  years  after  the  Constitution  was 
adopted.  These  amendments  should  be  studied  care- 
fully, for  they  are  really  our  national  "  Bill  of  Rights." 
The  first  amendment  alone  guarantees  to  citizens  rights 
that  are  enjoyed  fully  in  very  few  countries  of  the  world. 
As  you  read  these  amendments  and  learn  what  are  your 
rights  under  the  Constitution,  do  not  forget  your  duties. 
If  it  is  your  right  to  worship  as  you  please,  it  is  your  duty 
not  to  persecute  in  any  way  those  whose  religion  is  differ- 
ent from  your  own;  if  it  is  your  right  to  express  your 
opinion  freely,  it  is  your  duty  to  allow  your  neighbor  to 
express  his  opinion  without  attempting  to  punish  him  for 
so  doing. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  WORK 

1.  Find  authority  in  the  Constitution  for  the  following  things  that 
Congress  has  done : 

(a)    It  supports  a  National  Museum. 

(d)  It  maintains  a  Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis. 

(c)  It  appropriates  money  for  the  support  of  agricultural  colleges. 
((/)    It  supports  life-saving  stations  along  the  seacoast. 

(e)  It  bought  Louisiana  of  France  and  Alaska  of  Russia. 

(/)  It  appropriates  money  for  the  relief  of  sufferers  in  flooded  districts. 

2.  Name  some  of  the  things  Congress  can  do  under  the  following 
powers : 

(a)  Its  power  to  declare  war. 

(d)  Its  power  to  maintain  a  navy. 
(c)  Its  power  to  borrow  money. 
(^)  Its  power  to  coin  money. 

(e)  Its  power  to  admit  Territories  as  States. 

(/)  Its  power  to  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations. 
(g)   Its  power  to  provide  for  the  general  welfare. 

LESS.    IN   CIV.  —  I  I 


LESSON   XXXI 

HOW  THE   PRESIDENT  IS  ELECTED 

^'  Sir,  I  would  rather  be  right  than  be  President.'"  —  Henry  Clay. 

The  Nomination  of  a  President. — Article  II.  of  the 
Constitution  refers  to  the  qualifications,  election,  and  pow- 
ers of  the  President,  the  head  of  the  executive  department 
of  the  national  government.  How  is  this  great  official 
chosen  }  How  do  the  70,000,000  people  of  our  great  Re- 
public select  one  of  their  number  as  a  ruler }  As  an 
intelligent  citizen  you  should  be  able  to  give  a  clear  an- 
swer to  this  question. 

The  election  of  a  President  is  conducted  by  political 
parties.  Before  a  man  can  hope  to  be  President,  he  must 
be  named  as  the  candidate  of  a  great  party.  Among  the 
millions  of  voters  in  a  great  political  party,  there  are  many 
public  men  who  are  eager  to  be  its  candidate  for  President. 
The  first  question  to  be  answered  then  is :  How  is  the 
presidential  candidate  of  a  political  party  elected  }  How, 
for  illustration,  does  the  Democratic  party  select  its  candi- 
date t  The  first  step  is  taken  several  months  before  the 
election  in  November.  In  April  or  in  May,  the  party 
holds  its  (i)  Primary,  or  first  election.  At  this  election  the 
Democratic  voters  of  a  township  or  of  an  election  district, 
choose  three  or  four  or  five  of  their  number  to  go  as  dele- 

162 


LESSON   XXXI  163 

gates  to  a  county  Democratic  convention.  These  delegates 
may  go  instructed  to  act  in  the  interest  of  a  certain  man  as 
the  party  candidate  for  President,  or  they  may  go  free  to 
act  as  their  judgments  direct.  In  a  few  days  after  the 
primary  election  the  delegates  from  all  the  election  districts 
of  the  county  assemble  (usually  at  the  county  seat)  as  the 
(2)  Democratic  County  Convention,  This  body,  consisting 
of  thirty  or  forty  men^  elects  three  or  four  or  five  delegates 
to  go  to  a  State  Convention.^  If  the  majority  of  the  dele- 
gates in  the  County  Convention  were  in  favor  of  a  certain 
man  for  president,  it  is  likely  that  the  delegates  of  the 
State  Convention  will  be  in  favor  of  the  same  man.  A  few 
weeks  after  the  holding  of  the  County  Convention,  dele- 
gates from  all  the  counties  assemble  at  some  convenient 
place,  as  (3)  Democratic  State  Convention.  This  body, 
consisting  sometimes  of  several  hundred  men,  passes  reso- 
lutions expressing  the  political  views  of  the  party  in  the 
State,  names  its  choice  for  presidential  candidate  —  if  it 
happens  to  have  a  choice  —  and  elects  delegates  to  the 
Democratic  National  Convention.  The  number  of  dele- 
gates sent  to  represent  a  State  in  the  Democratic  National 
Convention,  is  twice  the  number  of  the  representatives  of 
the  State  in  the  National  Congress.  For  example,  Cali- 
fornia, having  seven  members  in  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives, and  two  members  in  the  Senate,  or  nine  in  all,  is 
entitled  to  eighteen  delegates  in  the  Democratic  National 
Convention.  By  July  or  August  all  the  State  Conven- 
tions have  been  held,  and  delegates  have  been  elected  to 

^  In  a  city  each  ward  sends  delegates  to  a  city  convention,  and  this  body 
elects  delegates  to  the  State  Convention. 


1 64  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

the  great  (4)  Democratic  Natio7ial  Convention.  This  body, 
consisting  of  nearly  a  thousand  men,  representing  all  parts 
of  the  country,  meets  in  some  convenient  city  in  the  cen- 
tral part  of  the  United  States.  After  several  days  of 
discussion,  and  after  adopting  a  platform  expressing  the 
views  of  the  party  upon  public  questions,  it  elects  the 
Democratic  candidate  for  President  and  for  Vice  President. 
In  almost  the  same  way,  beginning  with  the  primary  elec- 
tion, and  advancing  to  the  County,  State,  and  National 
Conventions,  the  Republican  Party  and  People's  Party 
and  Prohibition  Party  select  their  presidential  candi- 
dates. 

Election  of  President.  —  After  all  the  political  parties 
have  named  their  respective  candidates,  the  campaign  be- 
gins. Political  meetings  are  held,  at  which  orators  set 
forth  the  claims  of  their  candidates  and  defend  the  platform 
of  their  party ;  in  the  cities  processions  march  through  the 
streets  with  great  display  of  banners,  torches,  and  fireworks, 
while  bands  of  music  play  spirited  airs ;  everything  that 
can  be  done  to  influence  voters  is  done.  The  campaign 
continues  until  election  day,  the  first  Tuesday  after  the 
first  Monday  in  November.  On  this  day  every  fourth 
year  about  fifteen  millions  of  citizens  go  to  the  polls  to 
express  their  choice  for  President.  But  they  do  not  vote 
for  a  President  directly ;  they  vote  for  a  set  of  men  called 
Electors^  whose  duty  is  to  vote  for  a  President  and  Vice 
President.  Each  State  is  entitled  to  a  number  of  electors 
equal  to  the  number  of  its  senators  and  representatives 
in  Congress.  Delaware,  having  one  representative  and 
two    senators,  is  entitled  to  three    electors;     New  York, 


LESSON   XXXI  165 

having  thirty-four  representatives  and  two  senators,  is 
entitled  to  thirty-six  electors.  There  are  in  all  the  States 
four  hundred  and  forty-seven  presidential  electors.  The 
names  of  the  State  electors  of  each  party  are  printed  on 
the  ballot  under  the  party  name,  and  those  who  receive  the 
highest  number  of  votes  are  elected  and  are  morally  bound  to 
vote  for  the  candidate  of  the  party  that  elected  them.  The 
successful  electors  of  each  State  meet  on  the  first  Wednes- 
day in  December  following  the  election,  and  vote  for 
President  and  Vice  President.  The  result  of  this  vote  is 
sent  in  a  sealed  envelope  to  the  President  of  the  Senate  at 
Washington.  On  the  second  Wednesday  of  the  following 
February,  the  President  of  the  Senate,  in  the  presence  of 
both  Houses  of  Congress,  opens  the  envelopes  containing 
the  electoral  vote  of  the  different  States,  and  the  votes  are 
counted.  The  person  who  has  a  majority  (224  or  more)  of 
the  votes  cast  for  President,  is  declared  to  be  elected  Pres- 
ident of  the  United  States,  and  the  person  who  has  a 
majority  of  the  votes  cast  for  Vice  President  is  declared  to 
be  elected  Vice  President  of  the  United  States.  (See  Con- 
stitution, Article  XII.  of  Amendments.)  It  has  happened 
twice  in  our  history  that  no  candidate  had  a  majority  of  all 
the  electoral  votes.  When  this  is  the  case  the  House  of 
Representatives  chooses  a  President  and  the  Senate  a 
Vice  President.  When  electing  a  President,  the  House 
must  choose  from  the  three  highest  on  the  list  of  the  per- 
sons voted  for  by  the  electors,  and  it  must  vote  by  States, 
the  majority  of  representatives  from  each  State  casting 
one  vote  for  their  State,  and  the  representatives  of  two 
thirds  of  the  States  must  take  part  in  the  election.     The 


1 66  LESSONS  IN  CIVICS 

successful  candidate  must  receive  a  majority  of  the  votes 
of  all  the  States.  When  the  Senate  is  obliged  to  elect  a 
Vice  President,  it  proceeds  on  the  same  principles. 

Inauguration.  —  On  the  fourth  of  March  the  newly 
elected  President  and  Vice  President  begin  their  duties. 
In  the  presence  of  a  vast  throng  of  citizens  the  Chief  Jus- 
tice of  the  United  States  administers  to  the  President- 
elect the  following  oath  :  "  I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm) 
that  I  will  faithfully  execute  the  office  of  President  of  the 
United  States,  and  will,  to  the  best  of  my  ability,  preserve, 
protect,  and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States." 
The  President  then  delivers  his  inaugural  address,  from 
the  eastern  steps  of  the  Capitol,  outlining  his  policy  and 
stating  his  ideas  upon  public  questions.  After  this  inaugu- 
ration he  is  driven  to  the  executive  mansion,  generally 
known  as  the  ''White  House,"  where  he  resides  during 
his  term  of  office,  and  where  you  may  some  day  see  him 
and  shake  hands  with  him. 

EXERCISE 

(By  examining  Article  II.  of  the  Constitution,  the  pupil  may  learn  how 
to  fill  the  blanks  properly.) 

Both  President  and  Vice  President  hold  their  position  for years. 

No  person  may  be  President  who  was  not  born  in  the ,  and  who  is 

not years  of  age  at  the  time  of  his ,  and  who  has  not  been  a 

resident  within  the for years.  If  a  President  should  be  re- 
moved from  his  office  or  should or or  be to  discharge 

the  powers  and  duties  of  his ,  the  position  of shall  be  filled  by 

the .     The  President  receives  a  salary  for  his ,  but  this • 

must  not  be or during  his  term  of .  He  must  not  re- 
ceive any  other  compensation  than  his either  from  the j  or 

any . 


LESSON  XXXI  167 


QUESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  WORK 

1.  What  is  the  salary  of  the  President?     Of  the  Vice  President? 

2.  Ought  the  President  to  be  elected  directly  by  the  people? 

3.  How  many  Presidents  have  been  elected  a  second  time?     What 
are  the  objections  to  electing  a  President  for  a  third  term  ? 

4.  How  many  votes  were  cast  for  presidential  electors  at  the  last 
election? 

5.  Is  it  possible  for  a  man  to  be  elected  president  without  receiving 
a  majority  of  the  votes  of  the  people  ? 

6.  What  are  the  qualifications  for  the  office  of  Vice  President? 


LESSON   XXXII 

THE   PRESIDENT  AND  HIS  CABINET 

"The  President  is  strong  because  he  represents  the  people." 

—  Bryce. 

The  Powers  and  Duties  of  the  President.  —  The  President 
does  for  the  United  States  what  a  Governor  does  for  one 
of  the  States  —  he  takes  care  that  the  laws  are  faithfully- 
executed.  His  powers  and  duties  are  stated  in  the  second 
and  third  sections  of  Article  II.  of  the  Constitution.  He 
is  commander  in  chief  of  all  the  troops  in  the  service  of  the 
United  States,  although  in  times  of  war  he  may  not  appear 
personally  upon  the  field  of  battle.  He  may  pardon  crimi- 
nals convicted  for  offenses  committed  against  the  United 
States.  He  may  make  a  treaty  with  a  foreign  country 
providing  two  thirds  of  the  members  of  the  Senate  vote  for 
it.  A  treaty  is  an  agreement  between  two  nations  to  do  or 
to  refrain  from  doing  certain  things.  It  may  be  to  make 
war  upon  a  third  nation,  or  to  maintain  peace,  or  to  regu- 
late commerce  or  the  carrying  of  mails,  or  for  any  other 
purpose.  It  is  through  treaties  that  the  different  nations 
of  the  world  attempt  to  secure  the  good  will  of  each  other, 
and  the  responsibility  of  making  them  rests  with  the  Presi- 
dent and  the  Senate.  A  most  important  duty  of  the  Presi- 
dent is  to  select  proper  men  to  fill  the  many  offices  under 
the  national  government.       However,  as  you  see  in  the 

1 68 


LESSON   XXXII  169 

Constitution,  many  of  the  appointments  made  by  the 
President  must  secure  the  consent  of  the  Senate.  When 
the  Senate  is  not  in  session  the  President  may  fill  a  va- 
cancy without  waiting  for  its  consent.  At  the  beginning 
of  a  session  of  Congress  the  President  sends  to  that  body 
a  message^  in  which  he  calls  attention  to  the  needs  of  the 
country  and  suggests  such  legislation  as  seems  to  him 
necessary.  Congress  is  not  obliged  to  follow  the  sugges- 
tions of  the  President's  message  any  more  than  the  Legis- 
lature of  a  State  is  obliged  to  follow  the  suggestions 
contained  in  a  message  from  the  Governor.  When  Con- 
gress is  not  in  session  and  it  seems  necessary  that  certain 
laws  should  be  passed  as  quickly  as  possible,  the  President 
may  call  an  extra  session,  just  as  the  Governor  of  a  State 
may  call  an  extra  session  of  the  Legislature. 

The  Cabinet.  —  The  President  is  responsible  for  the 
management  of  the  entire  business  of  the  executive  de- 
partment. This  means  that  he  is  responsible  for  the  man- 
agement of  foreign  affairs,  which  includes  the  making  of 
treaties,  the  appointing  of  ministers  and  consuls  to  serve  in 
foreign  countries  and  instructing  them  in  their  duties,  the 
reception  of  foreign  ministers  in  Washington,  the  giving  of 
passports  to  those  who  wish  to  travel  abroad,  the  protec- 
tion of  American  citizens  in  other  lands,  and  all  other 
business  that  arises  between  our  government  and  other 
governments.  He  is  responsible  for  the  collection  of  taxes 
and  the  expenditure  of  money  appropriated  by  Congress 
and  the  management  of  the  public  debt ;  for  the  manage- 
ment of  the  Indians,  the  sale  of  public  lands,  the  payment  of 
pensions,  the  taking  of  the  census,  the  granting  of  patents; 


I/O  LESSONS   IN  CIVICS 

for  the  management  of  the  army  with  its  officers  and 
troops  and  forts  and  equipments  and  miUtary  schools ;  for 
the  management  of  the  navy  with  its  fleets  and  forts  and 
training  schools ;  for  the  management  of  the  national 
courts  with  their  marshals  and  attorneys ;  for  the  man- 
agement of  the  vast  business  of  the  post  office  with  its  post 
office  buildings  and  postmasters,  letter  carriers  and  clerks. 
Of  course,  the  President  cannot  superintend  all  this  busi- 
ness in  person.  Like  the  executive  of  any  large  govern- 
ment, like  the  Governor  of  a  State  or  the  Mayor  of  a  city, 
he  must  have  a  body  of  able  assistants.  This  business  of 
the  national  government  is  divided  into  eight  departments, 
and  at  the  head  of  each  department  the  President  places  a 
man  who  he  thinks  is  competent  to  manage  its  affairs. 
The  eight  officers  placed  at  the  head  of  the  great  depart- 
ments are  known  as  the  Cabinet.  The  Cabinet  is  responsi- 
ble to  the  President,  and  whenever  he  wishes  to  confer  with 
it  or  to  get  its  advice,  he  summons  it  to  the  White  House, 
where  its  meetings  are  held.  No  record  is  kept  of  the 
Cabinet  meetings,  and  the  public  does  not  know  what  takes 
place  at  them.  The  President  is  not  bound  to  act  accord- 
ing to  the  wishes  of  the  Cabinet,  but  it  is  not  probable  that 
he  often  acts  contrary  to  its  decision.  The  names  of  the 
departments  with  the  titles  of  the  Cabinet  officers,  are : 

(i)  The  Department  of  State,  under  the  management 
of  the  Secretary  of  State,  who  is  at  the  head  of  foreign 
affairs. 

(2)  The  Treasury  Department,  under  the  management 
of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 


LESSON   XXXII  171 

(3)  The  Department  of  War,  under  the  management  of 
the  Secretary  of  War. 

(4)  The  Post  Office  Department,  under  the  management 
of  the  Postmaster-General. 

(5)  The  Department  of  the  Navy,  under  the  manage- 
ment of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 

(6)  The  Department  of  the  Interior,  under  the  manage- 
ment of  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  who  has  charge  of 
Indian  affairs,  pensions,  the  census,  patents,  copyrights, 
the  sale  of  public  lands. 

(7)  The  Department  of  Justice,  under  the  management 
of  the  Attorney-General,  who  gives  the  government  written 
opinions  upon  questions  of  law  and  represents  it  in  the 
national  courts.  His  office  is  like  that  of  the  Attorney- 
General  of  a  State. 

(8)  The  Department  of  Agriculture,  under  the  manage- 
ment of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  whose  duty  is  to 
promote  the  interest  of  farmers. 

The  Civil  Service.  —  In  all  the  departments  mentioned 
above,  there  are  employed  many  assistants.  In  the 
Post  office  Department  alone  there  are  more  than  eighty 
thousand  people  employed  in  collecting,  carrying,  and  dis- 
tributing the  mail.  All  servants  of  the  national  govern- 
ment, except  members  of  Congress,  army  and  navy  officers, 
and  soldiers  and  sailors  (in  the  naval  service)  belong  to  the 
Civil  Service.  The  officials  of  a  city  or  of  a  State  are  also 
members  of  the  Civil  Service.  One  of  the  questions  you 
will  have  to  decide  when  you  become  a  voter  is  :  How 
long  shall  an  employee  of  the  government  hold  his  posi- 


1/2  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

tion  ?  Shall  he  hold  it  as  long  as  he  performs  his  duties 
properly,  or,  shall  he  be  removed  when  a  new  party  or  a 
new  administration  comes  into  power  ? 

QUESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  WORK 

1.  Study  sections  two  and  three  of  the  second  article  of  the  Con- 
stitution, and  make  out  a  list  of  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  President. 

2.  What  is  the  salary  of  a  Cabinet  officer? 

3.  To  what  department  of  the  national  government  would  you  take 
the  following  matters : 

(a)  A  claim  for  a  pension. 

(d)  A  complaint  against  the  post  office.  ' 

(c  )  A  request  for  a  passport  in  foreign  countries. 

(d)  An  application  for  admission  to  West  Point. 

(e)  An  application  for  a  patent. 
(/)  A  theft  of  United  States  bonds. 

{g)    A  request  for  information  regarding  the  best  method  of  curing 
a  disease  in  cattle. 

4.  How  would  you  proceed    if  you  wished  to  get  a  position  as  a 
clerk  in  the  customhouse? 

5.  What   is   meant   by   the   words :    "  To   the  victors   belong   the 
spoils  "  ? 

6.  What  is  meant  by  "  Civil  Service  Reform  "  ? 

7.  Are  the  people  whom  you  know  generally  in  favor  of  the  merit 
system? 


LESSON   XXXIII 

THE  NATIONAL  COURTS 

"  The  Supreme  Court  is  the  living  voice  of  the  Constitution,  that  is, 
of  the  will  of  the  people  expressed  in  the  fundamental  law  they  have 
enacted.  It  is  the  conscience  of  the  people  who  have  resolved  to  re- 
strain themselves  from  hasty  or  unjust  action  by  placing  their  repre- 
sentatives under  the  restriction  of  a  permanent  law."  — /^///^^  Bryce. 

The  Kind  of  Cases  tried  in  the  National  Courts.  —  The 

third  article  of  the  Constitution  describes  the  powers  and 
the  nature  of  the  judicial  department  of  the  national 
government.  The  courts  of  a  State  try  those  cases  that 
arise  under  the  laws  and  constitution  of  the  State,  while 
the  courts  of  the  general  government  try  those  cases  that 
arise  under  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  and  the 
laws  passed  by  Congress.  A  man  charged  with  the  crime 
of  burglary  would  be  tried  in  one  of  the  courts  of  the  State 
in  which  the  crime  was  committed ;  for  the  laws  against 
burglary  are  passed  by  the  legislatures  of  the  States.  A 
man  charged  with  counterfeiting  money  would  be  tried  in 
one  of  the  national  courts  ;  for  the  laws  against  counter- 
feiting are  passed  by  Congress.  A  person  charged  with 
breaking  a  street  lamp  would  be  tried  in  a  State  court,  for 
his  offense  concerns  a  State ;  but  a  person  charged  with 
robbing  a  letter  box  attached  to  a  lamp-post,  would  be 
tried  in  a  court,  of  the  United  States,  for  his  offense  con- 

173 


174  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

cerns  the  national  government.  Again,  the  national 
courts  may  try  those  cases  that  arise  between  citizens  of 
different  States,  if  either  party  to  the  case  so  desires. 
Also  when  a  dispute  arises  between  two  States,  it  is  settled, 
not  in  a  State  court,  but  in  the  national  court.  If  such 
a  case  were  left  to  the  courts  of  one  of  the  States  to  be 
decided,  the  other  State,  if  the  decision  went  against  it, 
would  in  all  probability  be  dissatisfied.  Still  another  class 
of  cases  tried  in  the  national  courts  consists  of  those  in 
which  one  of  the  parties  is  a  foreigner.  If  a  foreign 
country  has  a  grievance  against  one  of  the  States  it  must 
try  its  case  in  the  courts  of  the  United  States,  for  the 
nation  and  not  the  State  is  responsible  to  foreign  gov- 
ernments. Likewise,  if  a  citizen  of  another  country  has  a 
grievance  against  a  State,  or  against  one  of  its  citizens,  he 
may  bring  suit  in  a  national  court.  In  the  case  of  am- 
bassadors and  their  families  and  attendants,  when  any 
trouble  arises,  the  matter  must  be  taken  directly  to  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States.  Under  this  rule,  if 
a  servant  of  an  ambassador  should  steal  a  pound  of  sugar 
or  should  be  charged  with  disorderly  conduct,  his  case 
would  have  to  be  tried  before  the  highest  court  of  the 
United  States.  This  great  respect  is  shown  to  foreign 
ministers  in  order  to  avoid  giving  offense  to  the  govern- 
ments which  they  represent. 

The  Four  Grades  of  National  Courts.  —  For  the  trial  of 
such  cases  as  have  just  been  mentioned,  the  government 
of  the  United  States  supports  a  system  of  courts  somewhat 
similar  to  those  supported  by  a  State.  The  judges  of  all 
these  courts  are  appointed  by  the  President.     The  lowest 


LESSON  XXXIII  17s 

court  of  the  system  is  the  (i)  District  Court,  presided 
over  by  a  District  Judge.  In  every  state  there  is  at  least 
one  District  Court.  The  larger  States  have  two  District 
Courts ;  New  York,  Alabama,  and  Texas,  have  three  each. 
Altogether  there  are  sixty-seven  District  Courts  in  the 
United  States.  These  lowest  courts  try  all  crimes  com- 
mitted against  the  United  States,  except  those  punishable 
by  death,  and  they  try  such  civil  cases  as  may  properly  be 
tried  in  national  courts.  When  a  case  has  been  tried  in 
the  District  Court  and  either  of  the  parties  to  the  case  is 
not  satisfied  with  the  result,  it  may  be  taken,  that  is,  ap- 
pealed, to  either  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States, 
or  to  the  Circuit  Court  of  Appeals,  a  court  established  in 
1 89 1  to  relieve  the  heavy  work  of  the  Supreme  Court. 
An  appealed  case  is  carried  {a)  to  the  Supreme  Court, 
when  it  involves  a  question  of  jurisdiction,  that  is,  a  ques- 
tion as  to  what  court  the  case  ought  to  be  tried  in ; 
(b)  when  it  involves  the  construction  of  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States ;  (6)  when  it  involves  a  question  of  the  con- 
stitutionality of  a  law,  whether  State  or  national ;  {d)  when 
it  is  a  case  of  conviction  for  some  great  crime ;  {e)  when  it 
involves  the  construction  of  a  treaty.  In  other  cases  than 
those  mentioned,  an  appeal  must  be  taken  from  the  Dis- 
trict Court  to  the  Circuit  Court  of  Appeals.  Next  to  the 
District  Court  is  the  (2)  Circuit  Court.  There  are  nine 
Circuit  Courts  in  the  United  States,  and  for  each  circuit 
there  is  a  Circuit  Judge.  Each  circuit  in  which  a  Circuit 
Court  is  estabUshed  consists  of  several  States.  A  justice 
of  the  Supreme  Court,  or  a  District  Judge  may  be  associ- 
ated with  a  Circuit  Judge  in  holding  court.     Circuit  Courts 


176  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

try  those  civil  cases  where  a  sum  of  money  greater  than 
jJSsoo  is  involved.  They  also  try  those  suits  that  arise 
under  patent  and  copyright  laws.  An  appeal  from  a  de- 
cision in  a  Circuit  Court  is  governed  by  the  rules  that  are 
followed  in  an  appeal  from  the  District  Court ;  sometimes 
it  will  be  taken  to  the  Supreme  Court,  sometimes  to  the 
Circuit  Court  of  Appeals.  The  Circuit  Court  itself  never 
hears  appeals. 

In  each  of  the  circuits  in  which  a  Circuit  Court  is  held 
there  is  a  (3)  Circuit  Court  of  Appeals.  This  court  consists 
of  three  judges,  one  appointed  expressly  for  the  Appeal 
Court,  one  of  the  justices  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  one  of 
the  judges  of  the  District  Court  within  the  circuit.  A  dis- 
trict judge,  however,  who  has  tried  a  case  in  the  District 
Court  cannot  sit  at  the  trial  of  the  same  case  in  the  Cir- 
cuit Court  of  Appeals.  It  is  a  general  rule  of  justice  that 
a  judge  who  has  taken  part  at  the  trial  of  a  case  in  a  lower 
court  cannot  take  part  in  the  trial  of  the  same  case  in  an 
upper  court.  The  Circuit  Court  of  Appeals  tries  only 
those  cases  that  are  brought  to  it  upon  appeal  from  the 
District  Court  and  the  Circuit  Court. 

The  highest  court  in  the  United  States  system  is  the  (4) 
Supreme  Court,  which  sits  at  Washington.  It  consists  of 
a  chief  justice  and  eight  associate  justices.  In  cases  affect- 
ing ambassadors  and  consuls,  and  those  in  which  a  State  is 
a  party,  it  has  original  jurisdiction.  This  means  that  these 
cases  must  be  tried  for  the  first  time  in  the  Supreme 
Court.  The  chief  business  of  this  great  court,  however, 
is  to  try  the  cases  that  are  appealed  to  it  from  the  lower 
courts.     The  Supreme  Court  is  the  most  exalted  and  in 


LESSON   XXXIII  177 

some  respects  the  most  powerful  body  in  the  United 
States.  It  acts  as  the  guardian  of  the  Constitution.  If 
Congress  or  the  Legislature  of  a  State  passes  a  law  that  is 
unconstitutional,  it  declares  that  law  null  and  void.  If  a 
State  Court  renders  a  decision  that  conflicts  with  the  Con- 
stitution or  with  a  law  of  the  United  States,  the  Supreme 
Court  may  overrule  the  decision.  It  may  pass  judgment 
upon  all  questions  of  law  or  of  fact  that  are  appealed  to  it 
and  that  it  chooses  to  consider. 

Note.  —  The  salaries  of  the  principal  officers  of  the  National  Gov- 
ernment are  as  follows : 

President $50,000 

Vice  President • 8,000 

Members  of  the  Cabinet 8,000 

Chief  Justice  of  Supreme  Court 10,500 

Associate  Justices  of  Supreme  Court     ....      10,000 

Judges  of  Circuit  Courts 6,000 

Judges  of  District  Courts 5,000 

Representatives 5,000 

Senators 5,000 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  three  of  the  most  important  decisions  that  have  been  made 
by  tlie  Supreme  Court  in  the  history  of  our  country. 

2.  Name  two  of  the  most  celebrated  men  who  have  served  as  Chief 
Justices  of  the  Supreme  Court. 

3.  Study  the  third  article  of  the  Constitution  for  answers    to   the 
following  questions : 

(a)    How  long  does  a  judge  of  a  federal  court  hold  office? 
(<^)    Can  Congress  reduce  the  salaries  of  the  present  judges? 

(c)  In  what  court  would  a  charge  against  a  consul  of  a  foreign  coun- 

try be  brought  ? 

(d)  In  what  court  would  a  man  be  tried  for  robbing  a  post  office? 

LESS.  IN  CIV. —  12 


178  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

(e)    In  what  court  would  a  suit  between  a  State  and  a  citizen  of  a 
foreign  country  be  tried? 

4.   Use  the  words  "State"  and  "federal"  properly  in  the  following 
passage : 

"There  are  less  than  a  hundred judges,  and  there  are  many 

thousands  of judicial  officers.     A  large  majority  of  the  cases  at  law 

are  tried  in courts.     If  only laws  are  involved  in  the  case,  the 

courts  can  have  nothing  to  do  with  it.     Ordinary  crimes,  such  as 

assault,  theft,  and  murder,  can  be  tried  only  in courts.     In  like 

manner  nearly  all  cases  arising  in  the  administration  of  school  laws, 
laws  concerning  paupers,  highways, taxation,  the  laws  for  the  gov- 
ernment of  cities  and  the  holding  of  elections,  are  triable  in  the 

courts  alone.     It  is  only  when  some  provision  of  the constitution, 

or  some  act  of  the  United  States  Government  is  involved  that  a 

court  can  act." — Macy. 


LESSON   XXXIV 

POLITICAL   PARTIES 

"A  political  party  is  a  body  of  men  united  for  promoting  by  their 
joint  endeavors  the  national  interest  upon  some  particular  principle  in 
which  they  are  all  agreed.  Party  division,  whether  in  the  whole  oper- 
ating for  good  or  evil,  are  things  inseparable  from  free  government."  — 
Edmtuid  Biirke, 

What  Political  Parties  are  for.  —  In  the  lesson  about  the 
election  of  a  President,  it  was  said  that  no  one  can  hope  to 
be  chosen  to  that  high  office  unless  he  is  first  the  choice 
of  a  great  political  party.  What  is  true  of  the  highest 
officer  is  for  the  most  part  true  of  the  lowest.  If  a  man 
wishes  to  be  elected  to  an  office,  whether  of  the  city  or 
county,  or  State,  or  nation,  he  must  secure  his  election 
through  a  party.  Moreover,  if  a  citizen,  or  a  large  num- 
ber of  citizens,  wish  certain  laws  to  be  passed,  or  desire 
the  government  to  adopt  a  certain  policy,  they  must  rely 
upon  a  party  to  bring  about  what  they  wish.  If  there  is 
no  party  in  existence  that  will  aid  them  in  securing  what 
they  wish,  they  must  form  a  party  of  their  own.  How 
may  they  do  this  '^.  Let  us,  for  illustration,  suppose  that  a 
large  number  of  people  believe  that  war  is  always  wrong, 
and  that  our  government  should  make  no  further  prepara- 
tion for  war,  that  the  land  forces  should  be  disbanded, 
that  the  ships  of  the  navy  should  be  disarmed,  and  that 

179 


l8o  LESSONS   IN   CIVICS 

the  military  and  naval  schools  should  be  closed.  At  pres- 
ent there  is  no  party  that  looks  with  favor  upon  such 
views.  Our  peace-loving  citizens,  if  they  wish  the  govern- 
ment to  adopt  their  policy,  must  form  a  party  of  their  own 
and  through  this  party  get  control  of  the  machinery  of 
government.  In  order  to  do  this  they  will  have  to  organ- 
ise, that  is,  they  will  have  to  form  in  bodies,  elect  officers, 
and  agree  upon  certain  lines  of  action,  and  appoint  com- 
mittees to  do  certain  things.  All  great  parties  are  thor- 
oughly organized.  In  every  township,  ward,  county,  and 
State,  there  are  regularly  chosen  permanent  committees 
to  whom  certain  party  work  is  given  to  be  done,  and  by 
whom  the  life  of  the  party  is  sustained  from  election  to 
election.  We  have  seen  how  the  great  task  of  nominating 
a  President  is  accomplished  through  party  organization. 
The  citizens  of  a  city  or  of  a  State,  then,  who  are  most 
enthusiastic  for  peace  will  organize.  They  will  meet  and 
form  a  peace  society,  electing  officers,  enrolling  members, 
and  taking  measures  to  secure  new  members.  Similar 
societies  will  soon  be  formed  in  other  States.  If  the  peace 
sentiment  in  the  country  is  quite  strong,  and  these  peace 
societies  are  quite  numerous,  it  will  not  be  long  before  the 
different  societies  will  send  delegates  or  representatives  to 
a  general  association  or  convention.  This  convention 
may  decide  to  enter  politics.  If  so,  it  will  state  its  politi- 
cal principles  in  a  declaration  called  a  platform,  and  will 
nominate  candidates  for  office  who  are  favorable  to  a 
policy  of  peace.  In  this  way  a  new  political  party,  a 
peace  party,  will  be  formed.  Everybody  who  believes 
that  government  should  pursue  a  policy  of  peace  will  now 


LESSON   XXXI V  l8l 

have  an  opportunity  to  express  his  views  by  voting  for  the 
candidates  of  the  new  party.  If  these  candidates  shall 
receive  a  number  of  votes  sufficient  to  elect  them,  they 
will  become  a  part  of  the  government,  and  they  will  be 
morally  bound  to  carry  out,  as  far  as  they  are  able,  the 
principles  of  the  party  that  elected  them.  Thus,  it  is 
through  party  organization  that  the  will  of  the  people  is 
expressed,  and  thus  far  no  other  way  of  expressing  that 
will  has  been  discovered. 

The  Choice  of  a  Party.  —  Every  young  man  upon  com- 
ing of  age  is  called  upon  to  vote  for  one  of  the  great 
parties.  Of  course  he  will  wish  to  vote  for  the  best  party. 
How  shall  he  decide  which  is  the  best.?  He  should  not 
vote  for  a  party  merely  because  his  father  votes  for  it,  or 
because  he  hopes  to  secure  an  office  at  its  hands,  but 
should  vote  for  the  one  that  he  thinks  will  act  for  the  best 
interest  of  the  country.  He  should  make  a  careful  study 
of  the  history  and  principles  of  all  the  great  political 
parties,  and  learn  what  each  has  already  done  for  the 
country,  and  what  each  proposes  to  do,  and  then  decide 
for  himself  which  one  he  will  vote  for.  The  principles  of 
party  may  be  found  in  its  platform.  A  very  good  way  for 
a  young  man  to  choose  his  party  would  be  for  him  to 
decide  (without  having  the  party  name  before  him)  which 
of  the  platforms  of  the  great  political  parties  contains  the 
best  principles,  and  choose  the  party  that  declares  for 
those  principles,  no  matter  what  may  be  its  name. 

Loyalty  to  Party.  —  After  a  man  has  voted  for  and 
worked  with  the  same  political  party  for  some  years  he 
becomes  attached  to  it,  and  it  is  difficult,  sometimes,  for 


1 82  LESSONS  IN  CIVICS 

him  to  vote  for  any  other  party.  He  becomes  a  party 
man  —  a  partisan.  If  he  leaves  his  party  he  is  pretty 
sure  to  offend  his  party  associates,  who  call  him  traitor  or 
mugwump,  or  some  other  harsh  name.  Yet  there  are 
times  when  it  is  the  duty  of  a  good  citizen  to  vote  against 
his  party.  When  he  believes  the  principles  of  his  party 
are  no  longer  good  for  his  country,  or  when  he  is  asked 
by  it  to  vote  for  dishonest  or  dangerous  or  incompetent 
men,  it  is  his  plain  duty  to  refuse  to  do  so.  In  such  a 
case  he  is  called  upon  to  decide,  not  between  one  party 
and  another,  but  between  a  party  and  his  country.  It  is  a 
question  of  patriotism,  or  love  of  country.  In  times  of 
war  a  man's  love  for  his  country  is  tested  by  his  willing- 
ness to  fight  and  die  for  it,  but  in  times  of  peace  his  pa- 
triotism is  tested  by  his  willingness  to  vote  right,  whatever 
may  be  his  interests  or  prejudices,  or  party  ties.^ 

1  An  excellent  history  of  parties  is  Johnston's  "  American  Politics.'' 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Administrator,  85 
Admission  of  States,  156 
Admitted  States,  106 
Age  of  Voters,  45 
Agriculture,  Department  of,  171 
Aldermen,  98 
Aliens,  39 

Naturalization  of,  40,  47 
Amendments  to  Constitution,  160 

to  State  Constitution,  ill 

to  a  Bill,  120 
Appeal  of  Cases,  136 
Appeals,  Circuit  Court  of,  175,  176 

Court  of,  136 
Apportionment  to  House  of  Represen- 
tatives, 146 

to  State  Legislature,  116 
Appropriations,  159 
Armies,  Power  of  Congress  to  raise,  154 
Articles  of  Confederation,  139 
Assembly,  115 
Assessors,  62 

of  Town,  79 

of  Township,  91 
Assistance  of  Parents,  24 
Attendance  of  Pupils,  34 
Attorney-General,  130 
Attorney,  State's,  87 


Auditor  of  County,  86 

of  Township,  91 
Australian  System,  51,  52 

B 

Bail,  133 

Ballot,  51 

Bankruptcy,  151 

Bill,  Amendment  to,  120 
of  Rights,  109,  i6l 
Passage  of,  1 19-122 
Readings  of,  120 

Board  of  Aldermen,  98 
of  Education,  30 

Borough,  95 

Bribery,  52,  57 

By-laws,  78 


Cabinet,  169 
Campaign,  Political,  164 
Capital,  114 
Capitol,  114 
Capitation  Tax,  159 
Cases,  Civil,  136 

Criminal,  136 
Census,  116 

Chairman  of  Senate,  118 
Charter,  Definition  of,  96 

Village,  95 


185 


1 86 


INDEX 


Children,  Support  of,  22 
Circuit  Court,  133 

of  Appeals,  175,176 

United  States,  175 
Cities,  Growth  of,  93 
Citizen,  Meaning  of,  39 
Citizens,  Rights  of,  41-60 
Citizenship,  38 
City  Council,  98,  99 

Courts,  loi 

Government,  98-101,  102 

Hall,  98 
Civil  Cases,  136 

Rights,  41 

Service,  171 
Clerk  of  County  Court,  85 

Town,  79 

Township,  90 
Collector  of  Taxes,  63,  86,  91 
Colonies,  Government  of,  104 
Columbia,  District  of,  155 
Commerce  regulated  by  Congress,  151 
Commissioners,  County,  83 

District  of  Columbia,  155 
Committee  of  Legislature,  117 

of  School,  30 
Common  Pleas,  Court  of,  loi 
Commutation,  Power  of,  127 
Comptroller,  129 
Conduct  of  Pupils,  33 
Confederation,  Articles  of,  139 

Weakness  of,  140 
Congressional  District,  146 
Congress,  145-161 

Branches  of,  145 

Election  of  President  by,  165 

Extra  Session  of,  169 

Power  of,  145-157 

to  admit  New  States,  156 

to  constitute  Courts,  154 


Congress,  to  call  forth  Militia,  155 
to  discipline  Militia,  155 
to  establish  Post  Office,  153 
to  establish  Post  Roads,  153 
to  govern  Territories,  156 
to  punish  Piracy,  154 
to  regulate  Election  of  President, 

156 

Time  and  Place  of  Meeting,  145 
Constables,  80,  91 
Constitution,  Meaning  of  word,  108 

Amendment  to  State,  in 

Amendment  to,  160 

Adoption  of,  142 

Description  of,  109 

of  the  State,  108-112 

United  States,  144-176 

Formation  of,  144 
Constitutional  Convention,  1 10 
Constitutional    Convention    of    1787, 

141 
Constitutional,    the    word    discussed, 

112 
Control  of  Self,  1 7 
Convention,  Constitutional,  1 10 

County,  163 

National,  163 

of  1787,  141 

State,  163 
Copyright,  153 
Coroner  of  County,  86 
Counterfeiting,  Punishment  of,  152 
County  Government,  82-87 

Auditor,  86 

Commissioners,  83 

Convention,  163 

Coroner,  86 

Officers,  83-87 

School  Board,  87 

Seat,  83 


INDEX 


187 


County  Treasurer,  86 

of  Virginia,  82 
Court  of  Appeals,  136 

Circuit,  133 

City,  1 01 

Common  Pleas,  loi 

Criminal,  loi 

Justice  of  Peace,  132 

National,  173-176 

Orphans',  85 

Police,  loi 

Supreme,  of  State,  136 

United  States  District,  175 

United  States  Circuit,  175 

United  States  Circuit,  of  Appeals, 
176 

United  States  Supreme,  176 
Criminals,  48 
Criminal  Courts,  loi 

D 

Declaration  of  Rights,  109 
Defendant,  135 
Defense  of  Country,  57 

of  Self,  42 
Delegates,  House  of,  115 
Democracy,  72 

Democracy,  Representative,  72 
Departments  of  Agriculture,  171 

City,  100 

Government,  73 

Interior,  171 

Judiciary,  132 

Justice,  171 

Navy,  171 

State,  170 

War,  171 
District,  Congressional,  146 
District  Court,  133 


District  Court  of  United  States,  175 

School,  29 
Divorce,  25 
Domain,  Eminent,  69 
Duties  and  Excises,  66 
Duties  of  Parent,  22 

Pupils,  35,  36 

School  Officers,  31 

Teachers,  31,  35,  36 
Duty,  56 


Education  of  Children,  23 

a  Qualification  of  Voting,  47 
"Elastic  Clause,"  157 
Election  by  Plurality,  53 

how  conducted,  50 

of  Members  of  Legislature,  115 

Primary,  162 

of  President,  162 

of  President  by  Congress,  165 
Election,  Officers  of  Township,  92 
Electors,  45 
Eminent  Domain,  69 
Examiners  of  Schools,  87 
Excises,  66 
Executive  Department  of  Government, 

73 
Officers  of  State,  128-130 
Attorney-General,  130 
Comptroller,  129 
Treasurer,  129 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  130 
Exemption,  64 
Exports,  Tax  on,  159 
Ex  post  facto  Law,  158 
Extra  Session 

of  Congress,  169 

of  State  Legislature,  127 


1 88 


INDEX 


Family,  21-28 

Government,  22,  28 

in  Ancient  Times,  21 
Father,  Power  of,  21 
Fees,  68 

Fence  Viewers,  80 
Field  Drivers,  80 
Franchises,  68 
Functions  of  City  Government,  loi 


Government 

City,  98-102 

Colonial,  104 

County,  82-87 

Departments  of,  73 

Family,  22-28 

Local,  139 

Meaning  of  word,  13 

Necessity  of,  15 

Representative,  71 

of  Self,  17,  19 

of  Schools,  29-37 

of  the  State,  103-136 

Study  of,  13 

Town,  75-81 

Township,  89-92 
Governor  of  a  State,  126-128 

Extent  of  Power  of,  128 

Message  of,  127 

Powers  of,  126 

Veto,  121 
Grand  Jury,  134 

H 

Habeas  Corpus,  43,  158 
Suspension  of,  43 


Honesty  in  Public  Office,  99,  124 
House  of  Delegates,  115 
House  of  Representatives,  115,  146 
Husband,  25 

I 

Idiots,  48 

Impeachment,  130 

Inauguration  of  President,  166 

Income  Tax,  67 

Indictment,  134 

Interior,  Department  of,  171 

J 

Journal  of  House  of  Representatives, 

117 
Judge,  Circuit,  134 

of  Elections,  50 
Judicial  Department,  73 

of  State,  132 

of  Nation,  173-177 
Jurisdiction,  Original,  176 
Jury,  Grand,  134 
Jury,  Petit,  135 
Justice,  Department  of,  171 

of  Peace,  132 


Law,  how  made,  119-122 

How  passed  in  Congress,  147 
Made  by  State  Legislature,  123 
Nature  of,  15 
Obedience  to,  56 

Legislative  Department,  73 

Legislature  of  State,  1 14-124 
Election  of  Members,  115 
Organization  of,  117 

Liberty,  Personal,  42 


INDEX 


189 


Licenses,  68 

Lieutenant  Governor,  118,  128 
Living,  Earning  a,  58 
Local  Self-government,  139 
Loyalty  to  Party,  181 

M 

Majority,  53 

Marque  and  Reprisal,  154 

Marriage,  25 

Mayor,  Duties  of,  100 

Message  of  Governor,  127 

of  President,  169 
Militia  of  a  State,  155 

Power  of  Congress  to  call  forth,  155 
Mistress  and  Servant,  27 
Money,  Povv^er  of  Congress  to  coin  and 
to  borrow,  152 

N 

National  Convention,  164 
National  Courts,  Cases  tried  in,  173 

Four  Grades  of,  174 
National  Government,  138 
Naturalization  of  Aliens,  40,  47 

Regulated  by  Congress,  151 
Navy,  Department  of,  171 

Maintained  by  Congress,  155 
Nobility,  Title  of,  159 
Nomination  of  President,  162 


Obedience  to  Law,  56 

of  Children,  23 
Office,  Right  of  holding,  53 
Officers,  County,  83-87 

State,  126-130 


Officers,  Town,  78-80 

Township,  90-92 
Ordinance,  98 
Organization  of  Parties,  180 

of  State  Legislature,  117 
Original  Jurisdiction,  176 
Orphans'  Court,  85 
Overseers  of  Poor 

of  Town,  79 

of  Township,  92 


Pardon,  Power  of,  127 
Parents,  Duties  of,  22 

Rights  of,  23 
Parties,  Organization  of,  180 

Political,  179-182 
Partizanship,  182 
Party,  Choice  of,  181 
Loyalty  to,  i8i. 
Patents,  153 
Paupers,  48 
Personal  Security,  41 
Petit  Jury,  135 

Piracy,  punished  by  Congress,  154 
Plaintiff,  135 
Platform,  Party,  180 

Political,  164 
Plea  of  Prisoner,  135 
Pleas,  Court  of  Common,  loi 
Plurality,  53 
Police  Courts,  loi 
Police  Justices,  loi 
Political  Campaign,  164 

Parties,  179-182 

Questions,  59 

Rights,  41 
Polling  Booth,  51 
Polls,  50 


I  go 


INDEX 


Poll  Tax,  46,  68,  159 

Posse  Comitatus,  85 

Post  Office  Department,  171 

Post  Roads,  153 

Powers  of  Congress,  149-157 

of  Governor,  126 

of  State  Legislature,  123 
Preamble  to  Constitution,  144 
Presents  from  Foreign  Sources,  160 
President,  how  elected,  162-166 
President,  Inauguration  of,  166 

Message  of,  169 

Nomination  of,  162 

Powers  and  Duties  of,  168 

Veto,  Power  of,  148 

Who  succeeds,  156 
Primary  Election,  162 
Progressive  Income  Tax,  67 
Property,  Personal,  61 

Private,  44 

Qualification  of  Voting,  46 

Real,  61 
Pupils,  Attendance  of,  34 

Conduct  of,  33 

Duties  of,  35,  36 

Rules  for,  33 


Qualifications  of  U.  S.  Senator,  148 

of  Voters,  45 
Quorum,  117 

R 

Reading  of  a  Bill,  120 
Registration  of  Wills,  86 
Registrars,  48 
Registration,  48 
Representation,  72 


Representation,  Method  of,  116 

in  National  Congress,  146 

of  Towns,  81 
Reprieve,  Power  of,  127 
Reputation,  42 
Residence  of  Voters,  46 
Rights,  Civil,  41 

of  Holding  Office,  53 

Political,  41 

Private  Property,  44 

S 

School  Board,  87 

Committee,  30,  31 

Directors,  30 

Directors,  Township,  90 

District,  29 

Government  of,  29 

Officers,  30 

Superintendents,  87 

Trustees,  30 

Visitors,  30 
Secretary  of  State,  129 
Security  of  Person,  41 
Selectmen,  78 
Self-control,  17 

Cultivation  of,  18 
Self-government,  70,  71 
Self-respect,  19 
Senate  of  State,  115 

of  United  States,  147 
Senator,  State,  115 

of  United  States,  147 
Sergeant-at-Arms,  117 
Servants  and  Mistress,  27 
Servants,  Rights  of,  26 

Treatment  of,  26 
Service  of  Children,  23 
Service,  The  Civil,  171 


INDEX 


191 


Session,  Extra,  127 

Sex  of  Voters,  46 

Share  of  Taxes,  62 

Sheriff,  84 

Slander,  42 

Slavery,  158 

Speaker  of  House  of  Representatives, 

"7.  147 
State,  Beginnings  of  the,  105 

Constitution  of,  described,  109 

Government,  Importance  of,  138 
State  Legislature,  1 14-124 

Honesty  in,  124 

Powers  of,  123 

Two  Branches  of,  114 

What  forbidden  to  do,  160 
State  Senate,  115 
State  Senators,  115 
States  admitted,  106 
States,  Thirteen  original,  104 
State's  Attorney,  87 
Studies,  Course  of,  34 
Suffrage,  Right  of,  45 
Superior  Court,  133 
Superintendent  of  Public  School,  87, 

130 
Supervisors  of  Townships,  90 
Supreme  Court  of  State,  136 

of  United  States,  176 
Surveyors  of  Highways,  80 
Suspension  of  Habeas  Corpus,  43 


Tardiness,  33 
Taxation,  61-69 

Indirect,  66 

Property,  Exempt  from,  64 
Tax,  Assessor,  62 

Capitation,  159 


Tax  Collector,  63 

Collector  of  Township,  91 

Defined,  61 

Direct,  159 

Dodgers,  64 
Taxes,  Power  of  Congress  to  Collect, 

150 
Taxpayer's  Share,  62 
Teacher,  Duties  of,  31,  35,  36. 
Territories,  How  governed,  157 
Town,  75-81,  95  n. 

Clerk,  79 

Constables,  80 

Government,  75 

Hall,  77 

House,  77 

Meeting,  77 

Officers,  78-80 

School  Committee,  79 

Selectmen,  78 

Support  of  Schools,  79 
Township,  89-92 

Assessors,  91 

Auditor,  91 

Clerk,  90 

Election  Officers,  92 

Government,  89 

Justice  of  the  Peace,  91 

Officers,  90-92 

Overseers  of  Poor,  92 

School  Directors,  90 
Treasurer  of  County,  86 

of  State,  129 

of  Town,  79 
Treasury  Department,  170 
Treaties,  168 
Truancy,  34 
Trustees  of  the  School,  30 

of  Township,  90 
Tun  Moot,  75 


192 


INDEX 


U 

United  States,  Begkinings  of,  138-143 

Congress,  144-157 

Senator,  147 
"  Unconstitutional,"  Meaning  of  the 
word,  112 


Verdict,  135 

Veto  of  Governor,  121 
of  Mayor,  100 
of  President,  148 

Village  Charter,  95 
Government,  93 

Virginia,  the  County,  82 

Visitors  of  School,  30 


Voters,  Qualifications  of,  45 

Residence  of,  46 

Sex  of,  46 

Who  are,  45 
Voting,  Methods  of,  52 

W 
War,  57 

Declared  by  Congress,  154 

Department  of,  171 
Warrant,  Definition  of,  92 
Washington,  Government  of,  155 
Weights  and  Measures,  152 
Wife,  25 

Rights  of,  26 
Wills,  Register  of,  86 
Writ,  91 


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